Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-x24gv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-17T21:47:47.538Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 35 - Dermatologic conditions in the elderly

from Section III - Care of the elderly by organ system

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2016

Jan Busby-Whitehead
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina
Christine Arenson
Affiliation:
Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia
Samuel C. Durso
Affiliation:
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Daniel Swagerty
Affiliation:
University of Kansas
Laura Mosqueda
Affiliation:
University of Southern California
Maria Fiatarone Singh
Affiliation:
University of Sydney
William Reichel
Affiliation:
Georgetown University, Washington DC
Get access

Summary

The geriatric population seeks care for a variety of skin concerns, which may be common conditions or unique to their age group. Some conditions can be attributed to normal physiologic changes of aging, which include benign skin growths, immunosenescence, and generalized xerosis. Other concerns are pathologic and may be related to a medical comorbidity or medication. Additionally, years of sun exposure may result in a significant burden of cutaneous carcinoma for some individuals. Changes in the structure and function of the skin that are a result of both natural and UVR-induced aging may contribute to skin disease. Common conditions (such as atopic dermatitis, seborrheic dermatitis, and psoriasis) affect the elderly in addition to diseases that are more unique to this population, such as bullous pemphigoid. Appropriate evaluation and management of skin disease require special attention in older adults.
Type
Chapter
Information
Reichel's Care of the Elderly
Clinical Aspects of Aging
, pp. 477 - 508
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Studdiford, J, Salzman, B, Tully, A. Geriatric Dermatology. In: Arenson, C, Busby-Whitehead, J, Brummel-Smith, K, O’Brien James, G, Palmer, M, Reichel, W, eds. Reichel’s Care of the Elderly: Clinical Aspects of Aging. 6th ed. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2009; 345–68.Google Scholar
Kligman, AM, Koblenzer, C. Demographics and psychological implications for the aging population. Dermatol Clin. 1997 Oct; 15(4):549–53.Google Scholar
Vukmanovic-Stejic, M, Rustin, MH, Nikolich-Zugich, J, Akbar, AN. Immune responses in the skin in old age. Curr Opin Immunol. 2011 Aug; 23(4):525–31.Google Scholar
Kosmadaki, MG, Gilchrest, BA. The demographics of aging in the United States: implications for dermatology. Arch Dermatol. 2002 Nov; 138(11):1427–8.Google Scholar
Vandergriff, T, Bergstresser, P. Anatomy and Physiology. In: Bolognia, J, Jorrizo, J, Schaffer, J, eds. Dermatology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2012; 4354.Google Scholar
Gilchrest, BA, Chiu, N. Aging and the Skin. In: Beers, MH, Berkow, R, eds. The Merck Manual of Geriatrics, 3rd ed. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co, Inc, 2000; 1231–7.Google Scholar
Balin, AK. Skin Disease, In: Evans, JG, Williams, TF, Beattie, BL, et al., eds. Oxford Textbook of Geriatric Medicine. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; 721–38.Google Scholar
Rinnerthaler, M, Duschl, J, Steinbacher, P, et al. Age-related changes in the composition of the cornified envelope in human skin. Exp Dermatol. 2013 May; 22(5):329–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stalder, JF1, Tennstedt, D, Deleuran, M, et al. Fragility of epidermis and its consequence in dermatology. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2014 Jun; 28(Suppl 4):118.Google Scholar
Fisher, GJ, Varani, J, Voorhees, JJ. Looking older: fibroblast collapse and therapeutic implications. Arch Dermatol. 2008; 144:666–72.Google Scholar
Rabe, JH, Mamelak, AJ, McElgunn, PJ, et al. Photoaging: mechanisms and repair. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006 Jul; 55(1):119.Google Scholar
Xu, YP, Qi, RQ, Chen, W, et al. Aging affects epidermal Langerhans cell development and function and alters their miRNA gene expression profile. Aging (Albany, NY). 2012 Nov;4(11):742–54.Google Scholar
Laube, S: Skin infections and ageing. Ageing Res Rev. 2004; 13:6989.Google Scholar
Agius, E, Lacy, KE, Vukmanovic-Stejic, M, et al. Decreased TNF-{alpha} synthesis by macrophages restricts cutaneous immunosurveillance by memory CD4+ T cells during aging. J Exp Med. 2009; 206:1929–40.Google Scholar
Yaar, M, Gilchrest, BA. Ageing and photoageing of keratinocytes and melanocytes. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2001; 26:583–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, JM, Maibach, HI. Age and skin structure and function, a quantitative approach (I): blood flow, pH, thickness, and ultrasound echogenicity. Skin Res Technol. 2005; 11:221–35.Google Scholar
Hughes, VA, Roubenoff, R, Wood, M, et al. Anthropometric assessment of 10-y changes in body composition in the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004; 80:475–82.Google Scholar
Fenske, NA, Lober, CW. Structural and functional changes of normal aging skin. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1986; 15:571–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, DR, Burkemper, NM. Aging skin and wound healing. Clin Geriatr Med. 2013 May; 29(2):xixx.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, MH, Kirsner, RS, Eaglstein, WH, et al: Human wound fluid from acute wounds stimulates fibroblast and endothelial cell growth. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1991; 25:1054–8.Google Scholar
Kirsner, RS, Eaglstein, WH: The wound healing process. Dermatol Clin. 1993; 11:629–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sandblom, PH, Peterson, P, Muren, A, et al. Determination of the tensile strength of the healing wound as a clinical test. Acta Chir Scand. 1953; 105:252–7.Google Scholar
Freedland, M, Karmiol, S, Rodriguez, J, et al. Fibroblast responses to cytokines are maintained during aging. Ann Plast Surg. 1995; 35:290–6.Google Scholar
Pienta, KJ, Coppey, DS. Characterization of the subtypes of cell motility in ageing human skin fibroblasts. Mech Ageing Dev. 1990; 56:99105.Google Scholar
Raffetto, JD. Dermal pathology, cellular biology, and inflammation in chronic venous disease. Thromb Res. 2009; 123(Suppl 4):S6671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergan, JJ, Schmid-Schonbein, GW, Smith, PD, et al. Chronic venous disease. N Engl J Med. 2006; 355:488–98.Google Scholar
Aharon, I, Etcoff, N, Ariely, D, et al. Beautiful faces have variable reward value: fMRI and behavioral evidence. Neuron. 2001; 32:537–51.Google Scholar
Henderson, JJA. Facial attractiveness predicts longevity. Evol Hum Behav. 2003; 24:351–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alam, M. Dover, JS. On beauty: evolution, psychosocial considerations, and surgical enhancement. Arch Dermatol. 2001; 137:795807.Google Scholar
Rohrich, R, Pessa, J. The fat compartments of the face: anatomy and clinical implications for cosmetic surgery. J Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007; 119:2219–27.Google Scholar
Lambros, V. Observations on periorbital and midface aging. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007; 120:1367–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plewig, G, Koigman, AM. Proliferative activity of the sebaceous glands of the aged. J Invest Dermatol. 1978; 70:314–17.Google Scholar
Iannacone, MR, Hughes, MC, Green, AC. Effects of sunscreen on skin cancer and photoaging. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed. 2014 Apr–Jun; 30(2–3):5561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Creidi, P, Vienne, M-P, Ochonisky, S, et al. Profilometric evaluation of photodamage after topical retinaldehyde and retinoic acid treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998; 39:960–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, EA, Katz, HI, Levine, N, et al. Tretinoin emollient cream for photodamaged skin: results of 48-week, multicenter, double-blind studies. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997 Aug; 37(2 Pt 1):217–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calikoglu, E, Sorg, O, Tran, C, et al. UVA and UVB decrease the expression of CD44 and hyaluronate in mouse epidermis, which is counteracted by topical retinoids. Photochem Photobiol. 2006; 82:1342–7.Google Scholar
Dietre, CM, Griffin, TD, Murphy, GF, et al. Effects of alpha-hydroxy acids on photoaged skin. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996; 34:187–95.Google Scholar
Akpinar, F, Dervis, E. Association between acrochordons and the components of metabolic syndrome. Eur J Dermatol. 2012 Jan–Feb; 22(1):106–10.Google Scholar
Fajgenbaum, DC, Rosenbach, M, van Rhee, F, et al. Eruptive cherry hemangiomatosis associated with multicentric Castleman disease: a case report and diagnostic clue. JAMA Dermatol. 2013 Feb; 149(2):204–8.Google Scholar
Derancourt, C, Bourdon-Lanoy, E, Grob, JJ, et al. Multiple large solar lentigos on the upper back as clinical markers of past severe sunburn: a case-control study. Dermatology. 2007; 214(1):2531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanaka, M, Sawada, M, Kobayashi, K. Key points in dermoscopic differentiation between lentigo maligna and solar lentigo. J Dermatol. Jan 2011; 38(1):53–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
e Dinato, SL, de Oliva, R, e Dinato, MM, et al. [Prevalence of dermatoses in residents of institutions for the elderly]. Rev Assoc Med Bras. Nov–Dec 2008; 54(6):543–7.Google Scholar
Shuster, S. Osteoporosis, a unitary hypothesis of collagen loss in skin and bone. Med Hypotheses. 2005; 65(3):426–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, M. Cysts. In: Bolognia, J, Jorrizo, J, Schaffer, J, eds. Dermatology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2012: 4354.Google Scholar
Rogers, HW, Weinstock, MA, Harris, AR, et al. Incidence estimate of nonmelanoma skin cancer in the United States, 2006. Arch Dermatol. 2010; 146(3):283–7.Google Scholar
American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures 2014. Available at: www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsstatistics/cancerfactsfigures2014/index (accessed July 15, 2014).Google Scholar
Stern, RS. Prevalence of a history of skin cancer in 2007: results of an incidence-based model. Arch Dermatol. 2010 Mar; 146(3):279–82.Google Scholar
Mancebo, SE, Hu, JY, Wang, SQ. Sunscreens: a review of health benefits, regulations, and controversies. Dermatol Clin. 2014 Jul; 32(3):427–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, AC, Williams, GM, Logan, V, Strutton, GM. Reduced melanoma after regular sunscreen use: randomized trial follow-up J Clin Onco. 2011 Jan 20; 29(3):257–63; published online on December 6, 2010.Google Scholar
Lin, JS, Eder, M, Weinmann, S. Behavioral counseling to prevent skin cancer: a systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Feb 1; 154(3):190201.Google Scholar
Youssef, KK, Van Keymeulen, A, Lapouge, G, et al. Identification of the cell lineage at the origin of basal cell carcinoma. Nat Cell Biol. 2010; 12:299305.Google Scholar
Soyer, HP, Rigel, D, Wurm, E. Actinic Keratosis, Basal Cell Carcinoma, and Squamous Cell Carcinoma In: Bolognia, J, Jorrizo, J, Schaffer, J, eds. Dermatology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2012: 1773–94.Google Scholar
Bath, FJ, Bong, J, Perkins, W, Williams, HC. Interventions for basal cell carcinoma of the skin. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003; 2:CD003412.Google Scholar
Chren, MM, Linos, E, Torres, JS, et al. Tumor recurrence 5 years after treatment of cutaneous basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. J Invest Dermatol. 2013 May; 133(5):1188–96.Google Scholar
Röwert-Huber, J, Patel, MJ, Forschner, T, et al. Actinic keratosis is an early in situ squamous cell carcinoma: a proposal for reclassification. Br J Dermatol. 2007; 156:812.Google Scholar
Brantsch, KD, Meisner, C, Schonfisch, B, et al. Analysis of risk factors determining prognosis of cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma: a prospective study. Lancet Oncol. 2008; 9:713–20.Google Scholar
Schwartz, RA. Keratoacanthoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1994; 30:119.Google Scholar
Rowe, DE, Carroll, RJ, Day, CL Jr. Prognostic factors for local recurrence, metastasis, and survival rates in squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, ear, and lip. Implications for treatment modality selection. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1992; 26:976–90.Google Scholar
Marcil, I, Stern, RS. Risk of developing a subsequent nonmelanoma skin cancer in patients with a history of nonmelanoma skin cancer: a critical review of the literature and meta-analysis. Arch Dermatol. 2000; 136:1524–30.Google Scholar
Micali, G, Lacarrubba, F, Nasca, MR, et al. Topical pharmacotherapy for skin cancer: part II. Clinical applications. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014 Jun; 70(6):979.e112.Google Scholar
Ross, K, Cherpelis, B, Lien, M, Fenske, N. Spotlighting the role of photodynamic therapy in cutaneous malignancy: an update and expansion. Dermatol Surg. 2013 Dec; 39(12):1733–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scope, A, Dusza, SW, Halpern, AC, et al. The “ugly duckling” sign: agreement between observers. Arch Dermatol. 2008 Jan; 144(1):5864.Google Scholar
Garbe, C, Bauer, J. Melanoma In: Bolognia, J, Jorrizo, J, Schaffer, J, eds. Dermatology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2012: 18851914.Google Scholar
Zitelli, JA, Brown, C, Hanusa, BH. Mohs micrographic surgery for the treatment of primary cutaneous melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997 Aug; 37(2 Pt 1):236–45.Google Scholar
Gershenwald, JE, Thompson, W, Mansfield, PF, et al. Multi-institutional melanoma lymphatic mapping experience: the prognostic value of sentinel lymph node status in 612 stage I or II melanoma patients. J Clin Oncol. 1999; 17:976–83.Google Scholar
Leiter, U, Buettner, PG, Bohnenberger, K, et al. Sentinel lymph node dissection in primary melanoma reduces subsequent regional lymph node metastasis as well as distant metastasis after nodal involvement. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010; 17:129–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kettlewell, S, Moyes, C, Bray, C, et al. Value of sentinel node status as a prognostic factor in melanoma: prospective Observational Study. BMJ. 2006; 332:1423–7.Google Scholar
Morton, DL, Thompson, JF, Cochran, AJ, et al. Sentinel-node biopsy or nodal observation in melanoma. N Engl J Med. 2006; 355:1307–17.Google Scholar
Sosman, JA, Kim, KB, Schuchter, L, et al. Survival in BRAF V600-mutant advanced melanoma treated with vemurafenib. N Engl J Med. 2012 Feb 23; 366(8):707–14.Google Scholar
Chapman, PB, Hauschild, A, Robert, C, et al. Improved survival with vemurafenib in melanoma with BRAF V600E mutation. N Engl J Med. 2011; 364:2507–16.Google Scholar
Elewski, BE, Draelos, Z, Dréno, B, et al. Rosacea – global diversity and optimized outcome: proposed international consensus from the Rosacea International Expert Group. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2011; 25:188200.Google Scholar
Berg, M. Epidemiological studies of the influence of sunlight on the skin. Photodermatol. 1989; 6:80–4.Google Scholar
McAleer, MA, Fitzpatrick, P, Powell, FC. Papulopustular rosacea: prevalence and relationship to photodamage. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010; 63:33–9.Google Scholar
Spoendlin, J, Voegel, JJ, Jick, SS, et al. A study on the epidemiology of rosacea in the UK. Br J Dermatol. 2012 Sept; 167(3):598605.Google Scholar
Wilkin, J, Dahl, M, Detmar, M, et al. Standard classification of rosacea: report of the National Rosacea Society Expert Committee on the Classification and Staging of Rosacea. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002; 46:584–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazararidou, E, Clinical and laboratory study of ocular rosacea in northern Greece. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2011 Dec; 25(12):1428–31.Google Scholar
Lazaridou, E, Giannopoulou, C, Fotiadou, C, et al. The potential role of microorganisms in the development of rosacea. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2011; 9:21–5.Google Scholar
Zhao, YE, Wu, LP, Peng, Y, Cheng, H. Retrospective analysis of the association between Demodex infestation and rosacea. Arch Dermatol. 2010; 146:896902.Google Scholar
Kastarinen, H, Oksanen, T, Okokon, EO, et al. Topical anti-inflammatory agents for seborrhoeic dermatitis of the face or scalp. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014; 5:CD009446.Google Scholar
Potts, GA, Hurley, MY. Psoriasis in the geriatric population. Clin Geriatr Med. 2013 May; 29(2):373–95.Google Scholar
Dregan, A, Charlton, J, et al. Chronic inflammatory disorders and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, and stroke: a population-based cohort study. Circulation. 2014 Sep 2; 130(10):837–44.Google Scholar
Van der Voort, EA et al. Psoriasis is independently associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in patients 55 years or older: Results from a population-based study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014 Mar; 70(3):517–24.Google Scholar
Zachariae, H. Prevalence of joint disease in patients with psoriasis: implications for therapy. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2003; 4:441–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eder, L, Chandran, V, Shen, H, et al. Incidence of arthritis in a prospective cohort of psoriasis patients. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2011; 63:619–22.Google Scholar
Alamanos, Y, Voulgari, PV, Drosos, AA. Incidence and prevalence of psoriatic arthritis: a systematic review. J Rheumatol 2008; 35:1354–8.Google Scholar
Balato, N, Managing moderate-to-severe psoriasis in the elderly. Drugs Aging. 2014 Apr; 31(4):233–8.Google Scholar
Williams, HC, ed. Atopic Dermatitis: The Epidemiology, Causes and Prevention of Atopic Eczema. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Ozakaya, E. Adult-onset atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005 Apr; 52(4):579–82.Google Scholar
Bonamonte, D, Foti, C, Vestita, M, et al. Nummular eczema and contact allergy: a retrospective study. Dermatitis. 2012 Jul–Aug; 23(4):153–7.Google Scholar
Garritsen, FM, ter Haar, NM, Spuls, PI. House dust mite reduction in the management of atopic dermatitis: a critically appraised topic. Br J Dermatol. 2013; 168:688–91.Google Scholar
Kjaer, HF, Eller, E, Høst, A, et al. The prevalence of allergic diseases in an unselected group of 6-year-old children: the DARC birth cohort study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2008; 19:737–45.Google Scholar
Bath-Hextall, F, Delamere, FM, Williams, HC. Dietary exclusions for established atopic eczema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008; 1:CD005203.Google Scholar
Ring, J, Alomar, A, Bieber, T, et al. Guidelines for treatment of atopic eczema (atopic dermatitis) part II: European Dermatology Forum; European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology; European Task Force on Atopic Dermatitis; European Federation of Allergy; European Society of Pediatric Dermatology; Global Allergy and Asthma European Network. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2012 Sep; 26(9):1176–93.Google Scholar
Berger, TG, Shive, M, Harper, GM. Pruritus in the older patient: a clinical review. JAMA. 2013;310(22);2443–50.Google Scholar
Paul, C, Maumus-Robert, S, Mazereeuw-Hautier, J, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for xerosis in the elderly: a cross-sectional epidermological study in primary care. Dermatology. 2011; 223(3):260–5.Google Scholar
Cohen, AD, Vander, T, Medvendovski, E, et al. Neuropathic scrotal pruritus: anogenital pruritus is a symptoms of lumbosacral radiculopathy. JAAD. 2005; 52(1):61–6.Google Scholar
Savk, O, Savk, E. Investigation of spinal pathology in notalgia paresthetica. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005; 52:1085–7.Google Scholar
Browning, J, Combes, B, Mayo, MJ. Long-term efficacy of sertraline as a treatment for cholestatic pruritus in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003; 98:2736–41.Google Scholar
Klein, PA, Clark, RA. An evidence-based review of the efficacy of antihistamines in relieving pruritus in atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol. 1999; 135:1522–5.Google Scholar
Ada, S, Seçkin, D, Budakoğlu, I, Ozdemir, FN. Treatment of uremic pruritus with narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy: an open pilot study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005; 53:149–51.Google Scholar
Wang, H, Yosipovitch, G. New insights into the pathophysiology and treatment of chronic itch in patients with end-stage renal disease, chronic liver disease, and lymphoma. Int J Dermatol. 2010; 49:111.Google Scholar
Davis, MP, Frandsen, JL, Walsh, D, et al. Mirtazapine for pruritus. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003; 25:288–91.Google Scholar
Hundley, JL, Yosipovitch, G. Mirtazapine for reducing nocturnal itch in patients with chronic pruritus: a pilot study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004; 50:889–91.Google Scholar
Demierre, MF, Taverna, J. Mirtazapine and gabapentin for reducing pruritus in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006; 55:543–4.Google Scholar
Sheen, MJ, Ho, ST, Lee, CH, et al. Prophylactic mirtazapine reduces intrathecal morphine-induced pruritus. Br J Anaesth. 2008; 101:711–15.Google Scholar
Ständer, S, Böckenholt, B, Schürmeyer-Horst, F, et al. Treatment of chronic pruritus with the selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors paroxetine and fluvoxamine: results of an open-labelled, two-arm proof-of-concept study. Acta Derm Venereol. 2009; 89:4551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayo, MJ, Handem, I, Saldana, S, et al. Sertraline as a first-line treatment for cholestatic pruritus. Hepatology. 2007; 45:666–74.Google Scholar
Wallengren, J, Sundler, F. Brachioradial pruritus is associated with a reduction in cutaneous innervation that normalizes during the symptom-free remissions. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005; 52:142–5.Google Scholar
Goodkin, R, Wingard, E, Bernhard, JD. Brachioradial pruritus: cervical spine disease and neurogenic/neuropathic [corrected] pruritus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003; 48:521–4.Google Scholar
Marziniak, M, Phan, NQ, Raap, U, et al. Brachioradial pruritus as a result of cervical spine pathology: the results of a magnetic resonance tomography study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011; 65:756–62.Google Scholar
Eschler, DC, Klein, PA. An evidence-based review of the efficacy of topical antihistamines in the relief of pruritus. J Drugs Dermatol. 2010; 9:992–7.Google Scholar
Dawn, AG, Yosipovitch, G. Butorphanol for treatment of intractable pruritus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006; 54:527–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumagai, H, Ebata, T, Takamori, K, et al. Effect of a novel kappa-receptor agonist, nalfurafine hydrochloride, on severe itch in 337 haemodialysis patients: a phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010; 25:1251–7.Google Scholar
Phan, NQ, Bernhard, JD, Luger, TA, Ständer, S. Antipruritic treatment with systemic μ-opioid receptor antagonists: a review. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2010; 63:680–8.Google Scholar
Penning, JP, Samson, B, Baxter, AD. Reversal of epidural morphine-induced respiratory depression and pruritus with nalbuphine. Can J Anaesth. 1988; 35:599604.Google Scholar
Gilchrest, BA, Rowe, JW, Brown, RS, et al. Relief of uremic pruritus with ultraviolet phototherapy. N Engl J Med. 1977; 297:136–8.Google Scholar
Ko, MJ, Yang, JY, Wu, HY, et al. Narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy for patients with refractory uraemic pruritus: a randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol. 2011; 165:633–9.Google Scholar
Yalçin, B, Tamer, E, Toy, GG, et al. The prevalence of skin diseases in the elderly: analysis of 4099 geriatric patients. Int J Dermatol. 2006; 45:672–6.Google Scholar
Tomljanović-Veselski, M, Lipozencić, J, Lugović, L. Contact allergy to special and standard allergens in patients with venous ulcers. Coll Antropol. 2007; 31:751–6.Google Scholar
Jindal, R, Sharma, NL, Mahajan, VK, Tegta, GR. Contact sensitization in venous eczema: preliminary results of patch testing with Indian standard series and topical medicaments. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2009; 75:136–41.Google Scholar
Mimouni, D. Diagnosis and classification of pemphigus and BP. Autoimmunity Reviews. 2014 Apr–May: 13(4–5):477–81.Google Scholar
Bystryn, JC, Rudolph, JL. Pemphigus. Lancet. 2005; 366:6173.Google Scholar
Grando, SA. Pemphigus autoimmunity: hypotheses and realities. Autoimmunity. 2012; 45:735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lever, WF. Pemphigus. Medicine (Baltimore). 1953; 32:1123.Google Scholar
Joly, P, Roujeau, JC, Benichou, J, et al. A comparison of oral and topical corticosteroids in patients with bullous pemphigoid. N Engl J Med. 2002; 346:321–7.Google Scholar
Goon, AT, Tan, SH, Khoo, LS, Tan, T. Tetracycline and nicotinamide for the treatment of bullous pemphigoid: our experience in Singapore. Singapore Med J. 2000; 41:327–30.Google ScholarPubMed
Gürcan, HM, Ahmed, AR. Efficacy of dapsone in the treatment of pemphigus and pemphigoid: analysis of current data. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2009; 10:383–96.Google Scholar
Singh, S. Evidence-based treatments for pemphigus vulgaris, pemphigus foliaceus, and bullous pemphigoid: a systematic review. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2011 Jul–Aug; 77(4):456–69.Google Scholar
Mutasim, DF. Autoimmune bullous dermatoses in the elderly: diagnosis and management. Drugs Aging. 2003; 20(9):663–81.Google Scholar
Stavropoulos, PG, Soura, E, Antoniou, C. Drug-induced pemphigoid: a review of the literature. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2014 Sep; 28(9):1133–40.Google Scholar
Brenner, S, Bialy-Golan, A, Ruocco, V. Drug-induced pemphigus. Clin Dermatol. 1998; 16:393–7.Google Scholar
Brenner, S, Goldberg, I. Drug-induced pemphigus. Clin Dermatol. 2011; 29:455–7.Google Scholar
Feng, S, Zhou, W, Zhang, J, Jin, P. Analysis of 6 cases of drug-induced pemphigus. Eur J Dermatol. 2011; 21:696–9.Google Scholar
Dupuy, A, Benchikhi, H, Roujeau, JC, et al. Risk factors for erysipelas of the leg (cellulitis): case-control study. BMJ. 1999; 318:1591–4.Google Scholar
Semel, JD, Goldin, H. Association of athlete’s foot with cellulitis of the lower extremities: diagnostic value of bacterial cultures of ipsilateral interdigital space samples. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23:1162–4.Google Scholar
McNamara, DR, Tleyjeh, IM, Berbari, EF, et al. Incidence of lower-extremity cellulitis: a population-based study in Olmsted county, Minnesota. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007; 82:817–21.Google Scholar
Perl, B, Gottehrer, NP, Raveh, D, et al. Cost-effectiveness of blood cultures for adult patients with cellulitis. Clin Infect Dis. 1999; 29:1483–8.Google Scholar
Peralta, G, Padrón, E, Roiz, MP, et al. Risk factors for bacteremia in patients with limb cellulitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2006; 25:619–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harpaz, R, Ortega-Sanchez, IR, Seward, JF, Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevention of herpes zoster: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008; 57:130.Google Scholar
Yawn, BP, Saddier, P, Wollan, PC, et al. A population-based study of the incidence and complication rates of herpes zoster before zoster vaccine introduction. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007; 82:1341–9.Google Scholar
Straus, SE, Ostrove, JM, Inchauspé, G, et al. NIH conference. Varicella-zoster virus infections: biology, natural history, treatment, and prevention. Ann Intern Med. 1988; 108:221–37.Google Scholar
Donahue, JG, Choo, PW, Manson, JE, Platt, R. The incidence of herpes zoster. Arch Intern Med. 1995; 155:1605–9.Google Scholar
Zhang, JX, Joesoef, RM, Bialek, S, et al. Association of physical trauma with risk of herpes zoster among Medicare beneficiaries in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2013; 207:1007–11.Google Scholar
McDonald, JR, Zeringue, AL, Caplan, L, et al. Herpes zoster risk factors in a national cohort of veterans with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Infect Dis. 2009; 48:1364–71.Google Scholar
Bowsher, D. Postherpetic neuralgia and its treatment: a retrospective survey of 191 patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1996; 12:290–9.Google Scholar
Rowbotham, M, Harden, N, Stacey, B, et al. Gabapentin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1998; 280:1837–42.Google Scholar
Pavan-Langston, D. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Neurology 1995; 45:S50–1.Google Scholar
Ragozzino, MW, Melton, LJ 3rd, Kurland, LT, et al. Population-based study of herpes zoster and its sequelae. Medicine (Baltimore). 1982; 61:310–6.Google Scholar
Tomkinson, A, Roblin, DG, Brown, MJ. Hutchinson’s sign and its importance in rhinology. Rhinology. 1995; 33:180–2.Google Scholar
Diaz, GA, Rakita, RM, Koelle, DM. A case of Ramsay Hunt–like syndrome caused by herpes simplex virus type 2. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 40:1545–7.Google Scholar
Gnann, JW Jr. Varicella-zoster virus: atypical presentations and unusual complications. J Infect Dis. 2002; 186(Suppl 1):S91–8.Google Scholar
Kost, RG, Straus, SE. Postherpetic neuralgia–pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention. N Engl J Med. 1996; 335:3242.Google Scholar
Choo, PW, Galil, K, Donahue, JG, et al. Risk factors for postherpetic neuralgia. Arch Intern Med. 1997; 157:1217–24.Google Scholar
Adour, KK. Otological complications of herpes zoster. Ann Neurol. 1994; 35(Suppl):S62–4.Google Scholar
Mishell, JH, Applebaum, EL. Ramsay-Hunt syndrome in a patient with HIV infection. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1990; 102:177–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, MJ, Oxman, MN, Zang, JH, et al. Varicella-zoster virus-specific immune responses in elderly recipients of a herpes zoster vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2008 Mar 15; 197(6):825–35.Google Scholar
Oxman, MN, Levin, MJ, Shingles Prevention Study Group. Vaccination against herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. J Infect Dis. 2008; 197(Suppl 2):S228–36.Google Scholar
Fuller, LC. Epidemiology of scabies. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2013; 26:123–6.Google Scholar
Arlian, LG, Runyan, RA, Achar, S, Estes, SA. Survival and infectivity of Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis and var. hominis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1984; 11:210–15.Google Scholar
Currie, BJ, McCarthy, JS. Permethrin and ivermectin for scabies. N Engl J Med. 2010; 362:717–25.Google Scholar
Usha, V, Gopalakrishnan Nair, TV. A comparative study of oral ivermectin and topical permethrin cream in the treatment of scabies. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000; 42:236–40.Google Scholar
Sigurgeirsson, B, Steingrímsson, O. Risk factors associated with onychomycosis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2004; 18:4851.Google Scholar
Piérard, GE, Piérard-Franchimont, C. The nail under fungal siege in patients with type II diabetes mellitus. Mycoses. 2005; 48:339–42.Google Scholar
Muñoz-Pérez, MA, Rodriguez-Pichardo, A, Camacho, F, Colmenero, MA. Dermatological findings correlated with CD4 lymphocyte counts in a prospective 3 year study of 1161 patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease predominantly acquired through intravenous drug abuse. Br J Dermatol. 1998; 139:33–9.Google Scholar
Zaias, N, Tosti, A, Rebell, G, et al. Autosomal dominant pattern of distal subungual onychomycosis caused by Trichophyton rubrum. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996; 34:302–4.Google Scholar
Faergemann, J, Correia, O, Nowicki, R, Ro, BI. Genetic predisposition–understanding underlying mechanisms of onychomycosis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2005; 19(Suppl 1):1719.Google Scholar
Gupta, AK, Jain, HC, Lynde, CW, et al. Prevalence and epidemiology of onychomycosis in patients visiting physicians’ offices: a multicenter Canadian survey of 15,000 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000; 43:244–8.Google Scholar
Weinberg, JM, Koestenblatt, EK, Tutrone, WD, et al. Comparison of diagnostic methods in the evaluation of onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003 Aug; 49(2):193–7.Google Scholar
Gupta, AK, Fleckman, P, Baran, R. Ciclopirox nail lacquer topical solution 8% in the treatment of toenail onychomycosis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000; 43:S7080.Google Scholar
Gupta, AK, Ryder, JE, Johnson, AM. Cumulative meta-analysis of systemic antifungal agents for the treatment of onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol. 2004; 150:537.Google Scholar
Sigurgeirsson, B, Olafsson, JH, Steinsson, JB, et al. Long-term effectiveness of treatment with terbinafine vs itraconazole in onychomycosis: a 5-year blinded prospective follow-up study. Arch Dermatol. 2002; 138:353–7.Google Scholar
Drake, LA, Shear, NH, Arlette, JP, et al. Oral terbinafine in the treatment of toenail onychomycosis: North American multicenter trial. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997; 37:740–5.Google Scholar
Tosti, A, Piraccini, BM, Stinchi, C, Colombo, MD. Relapses of onychomycosis after successful treatment with systemic antifungals: a three-year follow-up. Dermatology. 1998; 197:162–6.Google Scholar
Hollmig, ST, Rahman, Z, Henderson, MT, et al. Lack of efficacy with 1064-nm neodymium:yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser for the treatment of onychomycosis: a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014; 70:911–7.Google Scholar
Yosipovitch, G, DeVore, A, Dawn, A. Obesity and the skin: skin physiology and skin manifestations of obesity. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007 Jun; 56(6):901–16.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×