Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-5nwft Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-20T09:30:10.261Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

27 - Infant Emotional Development

from Part VI - Emotional and Social Development

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 September 2020

By
Samantha Mitsven ,
Daniel S. Messinger ,
Jacquelyn Moffitt  and
Yeojin Amy Ahn
Edited by
Jeffrey J. Lockman  and
Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda
Jeffrey J. Lockman
Affiliation:
Tulane University, Louisiana
Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda
Affiliation:
New York University
Get access

Summary

Infants are emotional. From peals of laughter to disconsolate crying, infants are notorious for both the intensity and lability of their emotional displays. From the 1-year-old’s distress in pursuing a retreating parent to the 2-year-old’s joyful pursuit of a favorite pet, emotion appears to be a central motivator of infant action. Infancy is also characterized by rapid emotional development. Neonates exhibit high rates of crying, but by 6 months broad-mouthed smiles are a common feature of social play. Infants develop sadness expressions in the first year, demonstrate empathy by 2 years, and pride by 3.

Keywords

Infant emotion developmentinfant smilesinfant criestheories of emotional developmentnegative emotional developmentpositive emotional developmentinfant laughtersocial smilingneural bases of emotionsempathy
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Infant Development
Brain, Behavior, and Cultural Context
 , pp. 742 - 776
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abe, J., Beetham, M., & Izard, C. E. (2002). What do smiles mean? An analysis in terms of differential emotions theory. In Abel, M. H. (Ed.), Mellen studies in psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 83–109). Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.Google Scholar
Ackerman, B. P., Abe, J. A. A., & Izard, C. E. (1998). Differential emotions theory and emotional development: Mindful of modularity. In Mascolo, M. F. & Griffin, S. (Eds.), What develops in emotional development? (pp. 85–106). New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Adamson, L. B., & Bakeman, R. (1985). Affect and attention: Infants observed with mothers and peers. Child Development, 56, 582–593.Google Scholar
Adamson, L. B., & Frick, J. E. (2003). The still face: A history of a shared experimental paradigm. Infancy, 4, 451–473.Google Scholar
Anisfeld, E. (1982). The onset of social smiling in preterm and full-term infants from two ethnic backgrounds. Infant Behavior and Development, 5, 387–395.Google Scholar
Aviezer, H., Trope, Y., & Todorov, A. (2012). Body cues, not facial expressions, discriminate between intense positive and negative emotions. Science, 338(6111), 1225–1229.Google Scholar
Backer, P. M., Quigley, K. M., & Stifter, C. A. (2018). Typologies of dyadic mother–infant emotion regulation following immunization. Infant Behavior and Development, 53, 5–17.Google Scholar
Barr, R. G., Konner, M., Bakeman, R., & Adamson, L. (1991). Crying in !Kung San infants: A test of the cultural specificity hypothesis. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 33, 601–610.Google Scholar
Barrett, K. C. (1993). The development of nonverbal communication of emotion: A functionalist perspective. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17(3), 145–169.Google Scholar
Barrett, L. F. (2006). Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 20–46.Google Scholar
Barrett, L. F., & Wager, T. D. (2006). The structure of emotion: Evidence from neuroimaging studies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(2), 79–83.Google Scholar
Beebe, B., Messinger, D., Bahrick, L. E., Margolis, A., Buck, K. A., & Chen, H. (2016). A systems view of mother–infant face-to-face communication. Developmental Psychology, 52(4), 556–571.Google Scholar
Bell, S. M., & Mary, D. S. A. (1972). Infant crying and maternal responsiveness. Child Development, 43(4), 1171–1190.Google Scholar
Bennett, D. S., Bendersky, M., & Lewis, M. (2002). Facial expressivity at 4 months: A context by expression analysis. Infancy, 3(1), 97–113.Google Scholar
Bennett, D. S., Bendersky, M., & Lewis, M. (2005). Does the organization of emotional expression change over time? Facial expressivity from 4 to 12 months. Infancy, 8(2), 167–187.Google Scholar
Bigelow, A. E., & Power, M. (2016). Effect of maternal responsiveness on young infants’ social bidding-like behavior during the still face task. Infant Child Development, 25(3), 256–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigelow, A. E., & Rochat, P. (2006). Two-month-old infants’ sensitivity to social contingency in mother–infant and stranger–infant interaction. Infancy, 9, 313–325.Google Scholar
Blasi, A., Mercure, E., Lloyd-Fox, S., Thomson, A., Brammer, M., Sauter, D., … Murphy, G. M. (2011). Early specialization for voice and emotion processing in the infant brain. Current Biology, 21(14), 1220–1224.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., Rigo, P., Esposito, G., Swain, J. E., Suwalsky, J. T. D., … Venuti, P. (2008). Neurobiology of culturally common maternal responses to infant cry. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(45), E9465–E9473.Google Scholar
Bridges, K. M. B. (1932). Emotional development in early infancy. Child Development, 3, 324–341.Google Scholar
Buss, K. A., & Kiel, E. J. (2004). Comparison of sadness, anger, and fear facial expressions when toddlers look at their mothers. Child Development, 75(6), 1761–1773.Google Scholar
Campos, J. J., Mumme, D. L., Kermoian, R., & Campos, R. G. (1994). A functionalist perspective on the nature of emotion. In Fox, N. A. (Ed.), Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (Vol. 59, pp. 282–303, Serial No. 240). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Camras, L. A., Fatani, S. S., Fraumeni, B. R., & Shuster, M. M. (2018). The development of facial expressions: Current perspectives on infant emotions. In Barrett, L. F., Lewis, M., & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (4th ed., pp. 255–271). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Camras, L. A., Oster, H., Bakeman, R., Meng, Z., Ujiie, T., & Campos, J. J. (2007). Do infants show distinct negative facial expressions for fear and anger? Emotional expression in 11-month-old European American, Chinese, and Japanese infants. Infancy, 11(2), 131–155.Google Scholar
Camras, L. A., Sullivan, J., & Michel, G. (1993). Do infants express discrete emotions? Adult judgments of facial, vocal, and body actions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17(3), 171–186.Google Scholar
Chang, H. Y., Park, E. -J., Yoo, H. -J., Lee, J. W., & Shin, Y. (2018). Electronic media exposure and use among toddlers. Psychiatry Investigation, 15(6), 568–573.Google Scholar
Cohn, J., & Tronick, E. (1987). Mother–infant face-to-face interaction: The sequence of dyadic states at 3, 6, and 9 months. Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 68–77.Google Scholar
Cruz, M. D., Fernandes, A. M., & Oliveira, C. R. (2016). Epidemiology of painful procedures performed in neonates: A systematic review of observational studies. European Journal of Pain, 20(4), 489–498.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. [1872] (1998). The expression of the emotions in man and animals (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University.Google Scholar
Davila-Ross, M., Jesus, G., Osborne, J., & Bard, K. A. (2015). Chimpanzees (pan troglodytes) produce the same types of “laugh faces” when they emit laughter and when they are silent. PLoS One, 10(6), e0127337.Google Scholar
de Haan, M., & Nelson, C. A. (1999). Brain activity differentiates face and object processing in 6-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 1113.Google Scholar
de Haan, M., Pascalis, O., & Johnson, M. H. (2002). Specialization of neural mechanisms underlying face recognition in human infants. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(2), 199–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Klerk, C. C. J. M., Lamy-Yang, I., & Southgate, V. (2018). The role of sensorimotor experience in the development of mimicry in infancy. Developmental Science, 22(3), e12771.Google Scholar
Dickson, K. L., Walker, H., & Fogel, A. (1997). The relationship between smile-type and play-type during parent–infant play. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 925–933.Google Scholar
Dondi, M., Gervasi, M. T., Valente, A., Vacca, T., Bogana, G., de Bellis, I., … Oster, H. (2012). Spontaneous facial expressions of distress in fetuses. Paper presented at the 14th European Conference on Facial Expression, Lisboa-Almada, Portugal.Google Scholar
Dondi, M., Messinger, D., Colle, M., Tabasso, A., Simion, F., Barba, B. D., & Fogel, A. (2007). A new perspective on neonatal smiling: differences between the judgments of expert coders and naive observers. Infancy, 12(3), 235–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dondi, M., Simion, F., & Caltran, G. (1999). Can newborns discriminate between their own cry and the cry of another newborn infant? Developmental Psychology, 35(2), 418–426.Google Scholar
Duchenne, G. B. [1862] (1990). The mechanism of human facial expression (R. A. Cuthbertson, Trans.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ekas, N. V., Braungart-Rieker, J. M., & Messinger, D. S. (2018). The development of infant emotion regulation: Time is of the essence. In Cole, P. M. & Hollenstein, T. (Eds.), Emotion regulation: A matter of time (pp. 49–69). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Ekas, N. V., Haltigan, J. D., & Messinger, D. S. (2013). The dynamic still-face effect: do infants decrease bidding over time when parents are not responsive? Developmental Psychology, 49(6), 1027–1035.Google Scholar
Ekman, P., Davidson, R.J., Friesen, W. (1990). The Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology: II. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(2), 343–353.Google Scholar
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1992). Changes in FACS scoring (instruction manual). San Francisco, CA: Human Interaction Lab.Google Scholar
Elliot, H. C. (1969). Textbook of neuroanatomy (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott.Google Scholar
Emde, R. N., & Koenig, K. (1969). Neonatal smiling and rapid eye movement states. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 8, 57–67.Google Scholar
Emde, R. N., McCartney, R. D., & Harmon, R. J. (1971). Neonatal smiling in REM states, IV: Premature study. Child Development, 42, 1657–1661.Google Scholar
Feldman, R. (2003). Infant–mother and infant–father synchrony: The coregulation of positive arousal. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(1), 1–23.Google Scholar
Feldman, R., Greenbaum, C. W., & Yirmiya, N. (1999). Mother–infant affect synchrony as an antecedent of the emergence of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 223–231.Google Scholar
Fogel, A. (1988). Cyclicity and stability in mother–infant face-to-face interaction: A comment on Cohn and Tronick. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 393–395.Google Scholar
Fogel, A., Hsu, H. -C., Shapiro, A. F., Nelson-Goens, G. C., & Secrist, C. (2006). Effects of normal and perturbed social play on the duration and amplitude of different types of infant smiles. Developmental Psychology, 42, 459–473.Google Scholar
Fox, N., & Davidson, R. J. (1988). Patterns of brain electrical activity during facial signs of emotion in 10 month old infants. Developmental Psychology, 24(2), 230–236.Google Scholar
Geangu, E., Benga, O., Stahl, D., & Striano, T. (2010). Contagious crying beyond the first days of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 33(3), 279–288.Google Scholar
Geangu, E., Hauf, P., Bhardwaj, R., & Bentz, W. (2011). Infant pupil diameter changes in response to others’ positive and negative emotions. PLoS ONE, 6(11), e27132.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, K. A., & Lemery, K. S. (1997). Toddler and childhood temperament: Expanded content, stronger genetic evidence, new evidence for the importance of environment. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 891–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., Lemery, K. S., Buss, K. A., & Campos, J. J. (1999). Genetic analyses of focal aspects of infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 972–985.Google Scholar
Grossmann, T., Striano, T., & Friederici, A. D. (2005). Infants’ electric brain responses to emotional prosody. NeuroReport, 16(16), 1825–1828.Google Scholar
Halberstadt, A. G., & Lozada, F. T. (2011). Emotion development in infancy through the lens of culture. Emotion Review, 3(2), 158–168.Google Scholar
Hammal, Z., Wallace, E. R., Speltz, M. L., Heike, C. L., Birgfeld, C. B., & Cohn, J. F. (2019). Dynamics of face and head movement in infants with and without craniofacial microsomia: An automatic approach. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery – Global Open, 7(1), e2081.Google Scholar
Harmon, R. J., & Emde, R. N. (1972). Endogenous and exogenous smiling systems in early infancy. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 11, 77–100.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–135.Google Scholar
Hoehl, S., & Striano, T. (2008). Neural processing of eye gaze and threat-related emotional facial expressions in infancy. Child Development, 79(6), 1752–1760.Google Scholar
Holodynski, M. (2009). Milestones and mechanisms of emotional development. In Markowitsch, H. J. & Röttger-Rössler, B. (Eds.), Emotions as bio-cultural processes (pp. 1–25). New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Holodynski, M., & Friedlmeier, W. (2006). Development of emotions and emotion regulation. New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Hsu, H. -C., Fogel, A., & Messinger, D. S. (2001). Infant non-distress vocalization during mother–infant face-to-face interaction: Factors associated with quantitative and qualitative differences. Infant Behavior & Development, 24(1), 107–128.Google Scholar
Isomura, T., & Nakano, T. (2016). Automatic facial mimicry in response to dynamic emotional stimuli in five-month-old infants. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 283(1844). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.1948Google Scholar
Izard, C. E. (1979). The maximally discriminative facial coding system. Newark: University of Delaware.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E., & Abe, J. A. A. (2004). Developmental changes in facial expressions of emotions in the strange situation during the second year of life. Emotion, 4(3), 251–265.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E., & Ackerman, B. P. (2000). Motivational, organizational, and regulatory functions of discrete emotions. In Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 253–264). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E., Dougherty, L. M., & Hembree, E. A. (1983). A system for identifying affect expressions by holistic judgements. Newark: Instructional Resource Center, University of Deleware.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. L. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19, 418–426.Google Scholar
Jessen, S., & Grossmann, T. (2015). Neural signatures of conscious and unconscious emotional face processing in human infants. Cortex, 64, 260–270.Google Scholar
Jones, S. S., & Hong, H.-W. (2001). Onset of voluntary communication: Smiling looks to mother. Infancy, 2(3), 353–370.Google Scholar
Kärtner, J., Holodynski, M., & Wörmann, V. (2013). Parental ethnotheories, social practice and the culture-specific development of social smiling in infants. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 20(1), 79–95.Google Scholar
Kärtner, J., Keller, H., & Yovsi, R. D. (2010). Mother–infant interaction during the first 3 months: The emergence of culture-specific contingency patterns. Child Development, 81(2), 540–554.Google Scholar
Kaye, K., & Fogel, A. (1980). The temporal structure of face-to-face communication between mothers and infants. Developmental Psychology, 16(5), 454–464.Google Scholar
Keller, H., Borke, J., Lamm, B., Lohaus, A., & Dzeaye Yovsi, R. (2011). Developing patterns of parenting in two cultural communities. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(3), 233–245.Google Scholar
Keller, H., & Otto, H. (2009). The cultural socialization of emotion regulation during infancy. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(6), 996–1011.Google Scholar
Knafo, A., Zahn-Waxler, C., van Hulle, C., Robinson, J. L., & Rhee, S. H. (2008). The developmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions. Emotion, 8(6), 737–752.Google Scholar
Kobiella, A., Grossmann, T., Reid, V. M., & Striano, T. (2008). The discrimination of angry and fearful facial expressions in 7-month-old infants: An event-related potential study. Cognition and Emotion, 22(1), 134–146.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Forman, D. R., & Coy, K. C. (1999). Implications of the mother–child relationship in infancy socialization in the second year of life. Infant Behavior & Development, 22(2), 249–265.Google Scholar
Kohut, A. S., Riddell, P., Flora, D., & Oster, H. (2012). A longitudinal analysis of the development of infant facial expressions in response to acute pain: immediate and regulatory expressions. Pain, 153(12), 2458–2465.Google Scholar
Lavelli, M., & Fogel, A. (2002). Developmental changes in mother–infant face-to-face communication: Birth to 3 months. Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 288–305.Google Scholar
Lavelli, M., (2005). Developmental changes in the relationship between the infant’s attention and emotion during early face-to-face communication: The 2-month transition. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 265–280.Google Scholar
Leppänen, J. M., Moulson, M. C., Vogel-Farley, V. K., & Nelson, C. A. (2007). An ERP study of emotional face processing in the adult and infant brain. Child Development, 78(1), 232–245.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D. (2018). The emergence of human emotions. In Barrett, L. F., Lewis, M., & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (4th ed., pp. 272–292). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D., & Granic, I. (2000). Emotion, development, and self-organization: Dynamic systems approaches to emotional development (Vol. 8). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D., & Ramsay, D. S. (2005). Infant emotional and cortisol responses to goal blockage. Child Development, 76(2), 518–530.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D., Ramsay, D. S., & Sullivan, M. (2006). The relation of ANS and HPA activation to infant anger and sadness response to goal blockage. Developmental Psychobiology, 48(5), 397–405.Google Scholar
Lillard, A., Nishida, T., Massaro, D., Vaish, A., Ma, L., & McRoberts, G. (2007). Signs of pretense across age and scenario. Infancy, 11(1), 1–30.Google Scholar
Malatesta, C. Z., Culver, C., Tesman, J. R., & Shepard, B. (1989). Engaging the commentaries: When is an infant affective expression an emotion? Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 54(1–2, Serial No. 219), 125–136.Google Scholar
Malatesta, C. Z., & Haviland, J. M. (1982). Learning display rules: The socialization of emotion expression in infancy. Child Development, 53(4), 991–1003.Google Scholar
Marshall, P. J., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2014). Neural mirroring mechanisms and imitation in human infants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, 369(1644), 20130620.Google Scholar
Matias, R., & Cohn, J. F. (1993). Are MAX-specified infant facial expressions during face-to-face interaction consistent with differential emotions theory? Developmental Psychology, 29(3), 524–531.Google Scholar
Mattson, W. I., Cohn, J. F., Mahoor, M. H., Gangi, D. N., & Messinger, D. S. (2013). Darwin’s Duchenne: Eye constriction during infant joy and distress. PLoS ONE, 8(11), e80161.Google Scholar
Mattson, W. I., Ekas, N. V., Lambert, B., Tronick, E., Lester, B. M., & Messinger, D. S. (2013). Emotional expression and heart rate in high-risk infants during the face-to-face/still-face. Infant Behavior & Development, 36(4), 776–785.Google Scholar
Mayes, L. C., & Zigler, E. (2006). An observational study of the affective concomitants of mastery in infants. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33(4), 659–667.Google Scholar
McClure, E. R., Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., Barr, R. F., Holochwost, S. J., & Parrott, W. G. (2015). “Facetime doesn’t count”: Video chat as an exception to media restrictions for infants and toddlers. International Journal of Child–Computer Interaction, 6, 1–6.Google Scholar
Mendes, D. M. L. F., & Seidl-de-Moura, M. L. (2014). Different kinds of infants’ smiles in the first six months and contingency to maternal affective behavior. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 17, e80. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2014.86Google Scholar
Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2009). The many faces of the still-face paradigm: A review and meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 29(2), 120–162.Google Scholar
Messinger, D., Dondi, M., Nelson-Goens, G. C., Beghi, A., Fogel, A., & Simion, F. (2002). How sleeping neonates smile. Developmental Science, 5(1), 48–54.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Duvivier, L. L., Warren, Z. E., Mahoor, M., Baker, J., Warlaumont, A., & Ruvolo, P. (2015). Affective computing, emotional development, and autism New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., & Fogel, A. (1998). Give and take: The development of conventional infant gestures. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 44(4), 566–590.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Fogel, A., & Dickson, K. L. (1997). A dynamic systems approach to infant facial action. In Russell, J. A. & Dols, F. M. (Eds.), The psychology of facial expression (pp. 205–226). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Fogel, A., & Dickson, K. (1999). What’s in a smile? Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 701–708.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Fogel, A., (2001). All smiles are positive, but some smiles are more positive than others. Developmental Psychology, 37(5), 642–653.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Mahoor, M. H., Chow, S.-M., & Cohn, J. F. (2009). Automated measurement of facial expression in infant–mother interaction: A pilot study. Infancy, 14(3), 285–305.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Mattson, W. I., Mahoor, M. H., & Cohn, J. F. (2012). The eyes have it: Making positive expressions more positive and negative expressions more negative. Emotion, 12(3), 430–436.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Ruvolo, P., Ekas, N., & Fogel, A. (2010). Applying machine learning to infant interaction: The development is in the details. Neural Networks, 23(10), 1004–1016.Google Scholar
Mingawa-Kawai, Y., Matsuoka, S., Dan, I., Naoi, N., Nakamura, K., & Kojima, S. (2009). Prefrontal activation associated with social attachment: Facial-emotion recognition in mothers and infants. Cerebral Cortex, 19(2), 284–292.Google Scholar
Mireault, G. C., Crockenberg, S. C., Heilman, K., Sparrow, J. E., Cousineau, K., & Rainville, B. (2018). Social, cognitive, and physiological aspects of humour perception from 4 to 8 months: Two longitudinal studies. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 36(1), 98–109.Google Scholar
Mireault, G. C., Crockenberg, S. C., Sparrow, J. E., Cousineau, K., Pettinato, C., & Woodard, K. (2015). Laughing matters: Infant humor in the context of parental affect. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 136, 30–41.Google Scholar
Mizuno, Y., Takeshita, H., & Matsuzawa, T. (2006). Behavior of infant chimpanzees during the night in the first 4 months of life: Smiling and suckling in relation to behavioral state. Infancy, 9(2), 221–240.Google Scholar
Mundy, P., Hogan, A., & Doehring, P. (1996). A preliminary manual for the abridged Early Social-Communication Scales. Retrieved from www.psy.miami.edu/faculty/pmundy.Google Scholar
Murphy, F. C., Nimmo-Smith, I., & Lawrence, A. D. (2003). Functional neuroanatomy of emotions: A meta-analysis. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3(3), 207–233.Google Scholar
Nelson, C. A., & de Haan, M. (1996). Neural correlates of infants’ visual responsiveness to facial expressions of emotion. Developmental Psychobiology, 29(7), 577–595.Google Scholar
Nelson, C. A., & Monk, C. S. (2001). The use of event-related potentials in the study of cognitive development. In Nelson, C. A. & Luciana, M. (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (pp. 125–136). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Nishida, T. K., & Lillard, A. S. (2007). The informative value of emotional expressions: “social referencing” in mother–child pretense. Developmental Science, 10(2), 205–212.Google Scholar
Nwokah, E. E., Hsu, H.-C., Davies, P., & Fogel, A. (1999). The integration of laughter and speech in vocal communication: A dynamic systems perspective. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42(4), 880–894.Google Scholar
Nwokah, E. E., Hsu, H.-C., Dobrowolska, O., & Fogel, A. (1994). The development of laughter in mother–infant communication: Timing parameters and temporal sequences. Infant Behavior & Development, 17(1), 23–35.Google Scholar
Oster, H. (1978). Facial expression and affect development. In Lewis, M. & Rosenblum, L. A. (Eds.), The development of affect (pp. 43–74). New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Oster, H. (2005). The repertoire of infant facial expressions: An ontogenetic perspective. In Nadel, J. & Muir, D. (Eds.), Emotional development (pp. 261–292). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Oster, H., Hegley, D., & Nagel, L. (1992). Adult judgments and fine-grained analysis of infant facial expressions: Testing the validity of a priori coding formulas. Developmental Psychology, 28(6), 1115–1131.Google Scholar
Owren, M., & Amoss, R. (2014). Spontaneous human laughter. In Tugdale, M. M., Shiota, M. N. & Kirby, L. D. (Eds.), Handbook of positive emotions (pp. 159–178). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Perlman, S. B., Luna, B., Hein, T. C., & Huppert, T. J. (2014). fNIRS evidence of prefrontal regulation of frustration in early childhood. Neuroimage, 85(Pt. 1), 326–334.Google Scholar
Planalp, E. M., van Hulle, C., Lemery-Chalfant, K., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2017). Genetic and environmental contributions to the development of positive affect in infancy. Emotion, 17(3), 412–420.Google Scholar
Radesky, J. S., Peacock-Chambers, E., Zuckerman, B., & Silverstein, M. (2016). Use of mobile technology to calm upset children: Associations with social-emotional development. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(4), 397–399.Google Scholar
Raman, S., Guerrero-Duby, S., McCullough, J. L., Brown, M., Ostrowski-Delehanty, S., Langkamp, D., & Duby, J. C. (2017). Screen exposure during daily routines and a young child’s risk for having social-emotional delay. Clinical Pediatrics, 56(13), 1244–1253.Google Scholar
Rao, H., Clements, M. A., Li, Y., Swanson, M. R., Piven, J., & Messinger, D. S. (2017). Paralinguistic analysis of children’s speech in natural environments. In Rehg, J. M., Murphy, S. A., & Kumar, S. (Eds.), Mobile health: Sensors, analytic methods, and applications (pp. 219–238). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.Google Scholar
Reissland, N., Francis, B., & Mason, J. (2013). Can healthy fetuses show facial expressions of “pain” or “distress”? PLOS ONE, 8(6), e65530.Google Scholar
Reissland, N., Francis, B., Mason, J., & Lincoln, K. (2011). Do facial expressions develop before birth? PLOS ONE, 6(8), e24081.Google Scholar
Richman, A. L., Miller, P. M., & LeVine, R. A. (1992). Cultural and educational variations in maternal responsiveness. Developmental Psychology, 28(4), 614–621. doi:610.1037/0012-1649.1028.1034.1614.Google Scholar
Robinson, J. L., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Emde, R. N. (1994). Patterns of development in early empathic behavior: Environmental and child constitutional influences. Social Development, 3(2), 125–145.Google Scholar
Roth-Hanania, R., Davidov, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2011). Empathy development from 8 to 16 months: Early signs of concern for others. Infant Behavior and Development, 34(3), 447–458.Google Scholar
Ruvolo, P., Messinger, D., & Movellan, J. (2015). Infants time their smiles to make their moms smile. PLoS ONE, 10(9), e0136492.Google Scholar
Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathic distress in the newborn. Developmental Psychology, 12(2), 175–176.Google Scholar
Santos, A. J., Daniel, J. R., Fernandes, C., & Vaughn, B. E. (2015). Affiliative subgroups in preschool classrooms: Integrating constructs and methods from social ethology and sociometric traditions. PLOS ONE, 10(7), e0130932.Google Scholar
Sauter, D., Evans, B., Venneker, D., & Kret, M. (2018). How do babies laugh? Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 144(3), 1840–1840.Google Scholar
Seibert, J. M., Hogan, A. E., & Mundy, P. C. (1982). Assessing interactional competencies: The Early Social-Communication Scales. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3(4), 244–258.Google Scholar
Simner, M. L. (1971). Newborns’ response to the cry of another infant. Developmental Psychology, 5(1), 136–150.Google Scholar
Sperry, D. E., Sperry, L. L., & Miller, P. (2018). Reexamining the verbal environments of children from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Child Development, 90(1). doi: 10.1111/cdev.13072Google Scholar
Sprengelmeyer, R., & Jentzsch, I. (2006). Event related potentials and the perception of intensity in facial expressions. Neuropsychologia, 44(14), 2899–2906.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1979). Socioemotional development. In Osofsky, J. (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (pp. 462–516). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1996). Emotional development: The organization of emotional life in the early years. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., & Waters, E. (1976). The ontogenesis of smiling and laughter: A perspective on the organization of development in infancy. Psychological Review, 83(3), 173–189.Google Scholar
Stifter, C. A., & Moyer, D. (1991). The regulation of positive affect: Gaze aversion activity during mother–infant interaction. Infant Behavior and Development, 14, 111–123.Google Scholar
Striano, T., & Bertin, E. (2005). Coordinated affect with mothers and strangers: A longitudinal analysis of joint engagement between 5 and 9 months of age. Cognition & Emotion, 19(5), 781–790.Google Scholar
Susskind, J. M., Lee, D. H., Cusi, A., Feiman, R., Grabski, W., & Anderson, A. K. (2008). Expressing fear enhances sensory acquisition. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 843–850.Google Scholar
Symons, D., & Moran, G. (1994). Responsiveness and dependency are different aspects of social contingencies: An example from mother and infant smiles. Infant Behavior and Development, 17(2), 209–214.Google Scholar
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. B. (1994). A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Tomkins, S. S. (1962). Affect, imagery, consciousness: The positive affects (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Valeri, B. O., Ranger, M., Chau, C. M. Y., Cepeda, I. L., Synnes, A., Linhares, M. B. M., & Grunau, R. E. (2016). Neonatal invasive procedures predict pain intensity at school age in children born very preterm. Clinical Journal of Pain, 32(12), 1086–1093.Google Scholar
van den Boomen, C., Munsters, N. M., & Kemner, C. (2019). Emotion processing in the infant brain: The importance of local information. Neuropsychologia, 126, 62–68.Google Scholar
van Egeren, L. A., Barratt, M. S., & Roach, M. A. (2001). Mother–infant responsiveness: Timing, mutual regulation, and interactional context. Developmental Psychology, 37(5), 684–697.Google Scholar
van Huizen, T., Dumhs, L., & Plantenga, J. (2017). The costs and benefits of investing in universal preschool: Evidence from a Spanish reform. Child Development, 90(3), e386–e406.Google Scholar
Venezia, M., Messinger, D. S., Thorp, D., & Mundy, P. (2004). The development of anticipatory smiling. Infancy, 6(3), 397–406.Google Scholar
Washburn, R. W. (1929). A study of the smiling and laughing of infants in the first year of life. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 5(5–6), 397–537.Google Scholar
Watson, J. S. (1972). Smiling, cooing, and “the game.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 18(4), 323–339.Google Scholar
Weinberg, M. K., & Tronick, E. Z. (1994). Beyond the face: An empirical study of infant affective configurations of facial, vocal, gestural, and regulatory behaviors. Child Development, 65(5), 1503–1515.Google Scholar
Williams, P. L., Warick, R., Dyson, M., & Bannister, L. H. (1989). Gray’s anatomy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Witherington, D. C., Campos, J. J., & Hertenstein, M. J. (2001). Principles of emotion and its development in infancy. In Bremner, G. & Fogel, A. (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of infant development (pp. 427–464). Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Wolff, P. H. (1987). The development of behavioral states and the expression of emotions in early infancy: New proposals for investigation. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wörmann, V., Holodynski, M., Kärtner, J., & Keller, H. (2012). A cross-cultural comparison of the development of the social smile: A longitudinal study of maternal and infant imitation in 6- and 12-week-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 35(3), 335–347.Google Scholar
Wörmann, V., Holodynski, M., Kärtner, J., (2014). The emergence of social smiling: The interplay of maternal and infant imitation during the first three months in cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(3), 339–361.Google Scholar
Xie, W., McCormick, S. A., Westerlund, A., Bowman, L. C., & Nelson, C. A. (2018). Neural correlates of facial emotion processing in infancy. Developmental Science, 22(3), e12758.Google Scholar
Yale, M. E., Messinger, D. S., & Cobo-Lewis, A. B. (2003). The temporal coordination of early infant communication. Developmental Psychology, 39(5), 815–824.Google Scholar
Yarrow, L. J., Morgan, G. A., Jennings, K. D., Harmon, R. J., & Gaiter, J. L. (1982). Infants’ persistence at tasks: Relationships to cognitive functioning and early experience. Infant Behavior and Development, 5(2), 131–141.Google Scholar
Yik, M. S. M., & Russell, J. A. (1999). Interpretation of faces: A cross-cultural study of a prediction from Fridlund’s theory. Cognition and Emotion, 13(1), 93–104.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 126–136.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Robinson, J. L., & Emde, R. N. (1992). The development of empathy in twins. Developmental Psychology, 28(6), 1038–1047.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×