Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-p2v8j Total loading time: 0.001 Render date: 2024-05-20T17:39:43.417Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

10 - Abnormalities of the Vertebral Artery

Are Cervical Pressure Defects Being Overlooked in Palaeopathology?

from Part II - Cardiovascular Diseases Associated with Human Skeletal Remains

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 March 2023

Michaela Binder
Affiliation:
Novetus GmbH Archaeological Services
Charlotte A. Roberts
Affiliation:
Durham University
Daniel Antoine
Affiliation:
British Museum, London
Get access

Summary

The vascular system, as it passes through grooves and foramina along the surfaces of bones, can leave impressions on the skeleton. The areas where bones and vessels come into close contact can allow palaeopathologists to investigate vascular variations and pathological changes long after the loss of any soft tissues. For example, abdominal (Diekerhof et al., 2002; Ando et al., 2003) and thoracic (Sheeran & Sclafani, 2000; Takahashi et al., 2007) aneurysms can lead to lesions on the vertebrae.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adachi, B. (1928). Das Arteriensystem der Japaner. Kyoto: KenkyuSha.Google Scholar
Adeloye, A., Anomah, N. V. and Latunde, O. E. (1970). Traumatic aneurysm of the first portion of the right vertebral artery. British Journal of Surgery, 57, 312–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Alves, A. M. and Black, C. (1972). Post-traumatic extracranial aneurysm of the vertebral artery. International Surgery, 57, 422–6.Google Scholar
Anderson, R. E. and Shealy, C. N. (1970). Cervical pedicle erosion and rootlet compression caused by a tortuous vertebral artery. Radiology, 96, 537–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ando, M., Igari, T., Yokohama, H. and Satokawa, H. (2003). CT features of chronic contained rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm. Annals of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 9, 274–8.Google Scholar
Andoh, T., Shirakami, S., Nakashima, T., et al. (1992). Clinical analysis of a series of vertebral aneurysm cases. Neurosurgery, 31, 987–93.Google Scholar
Antoine, D. (2010). Pain in the neck? An abnormality from HK27C. Nekhen News, 22, 23.Google Scholar
Argenon, C., Francke, J. P., Sylla, S., et al. (1980). The vertebral arteries (segments V1 and V2). Anatomia Clinica, 2, 2941.Google Scholar
Babin, E. and Haller, M. (1974). Correlation between bony radiological signs and dolichoarterial loops of the cervical vertebral artery. Neuroradiology, 7, 1517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barrett, J. G. (1974). Enlargement of cervical intervertebral foramina by coiling of the vertebral artery. Australasian Radiology, 18, 171–4.Google Scholar
Billard, M. and Fantino, O. (2011). Erosions osseuses du rachis cervical par l’artère vertébrale: Aspects anatomiques à propos d’une observation ostéoarchéologique. Paleobios, 16, 5862.Google Scholar
Brahee, D. D. and Guebert, G. M. (2000). Tortuosity of the vertebral artery resulting in vertebral erosion. Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapy, 23, 4851.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadribb, A. J. (1970). Vertebral artery aneurysm in a case of Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. British Journal of Surgery, 57, 148–51.Google Scholar
Brooks, S. and Suchey, J. (1990). Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: A comparison of the Acsadi–Nemeskeri and Suchey–Brooks methods. Human Evolution, 5, 227–38.Google Scholar
Bruneau, M., Cornelius, J. F., Marneffe, V., Triffaux, M. and George, B. (2006). Anatomical variations of the V2 segment of the vertebral artery. Neurosurgery, 59(1 Suppl 1), ONS20–4.Google Scholar
Bruzek, J. (2002). A method for visual determination of sex using the human hip bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 117, 157–68.Google Scholar
Buerger, T., Lippert, H., Meyer, F. and Halloul, Z. (1999). Aneurysm of the vertebral artery near the atlas arch. Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery (Torino), 40, 387–9.Google Scholar
Buerger, T., Meyer, F. and Halloul, Z. (2000). Non-traumatic aneurysm of the extracranial vertebral artery. European Journal of Surgery, 166, 180–2.Google Scholar
Buikstra, J. E. and Ubelaker, D. H. (1994). Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series No. 44. Fayetteville, AK: Arkansas Archaeological Survey.Google Scholar
Burnett, K. R. and Staple, T. W. (1981). Case report 132. Skeletal Radiology, 6, 51–3.Google Scholar
Catala, M., Rancurel, G., Koskas, F., Martindelassalle, E. and Keiffer, E. (1993). Ischemic stroke due to spontaneous extracranial vertebral giant aneurysm. Cerebrovascular Disease, 3, 322–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavdar, S. and Arisan, E. (1989). Variations in the extracranial origin of the human vertebral artery. Acta Anatomica, 135, 236–8.Google Scholar
Chassaing, N., Martin, L., Calvas, P., Le Bert, M. and Hovnanian, A. (2005). Pseudoxanthoma elasticum: A clinical, pathophysiological and genetic update including 11 novel ABCC6 mutations. Journal of Medical Genetics, 42, 881–92.Google Scholar
Cooper, D. F. (1980). Bone erosion of the cervical vertebrae secondary to tortuosity of the vertebral artery. Journal of Neurosurgery, 53, 106–8.Google Scholar
Cory, D. A., Fritsch, S. A., Cohen, M. D., et al. (1989). Aneurysmal bone cysts: Imaging findings and embolotherapy. American Journal of Roentgenology, 153, 369–73.Google Scholar
Curylo, L. J., Mason, H. C., Bohlman, H. H. and Yoo, J. U. (2000). Tortuous course of the vertebral artery and anterior cervical decompression: A cadaveric and clinical case study. Spine, 25(22), 2860–4.Google Scholar
Danziger, J. and Bloch, S. (1975). The widened cervical intervertebral foramen. Radiology, 116, 671–4.Google Scholar
Darton, Y. (2014). Cervical vertebral erosion caused by bilateral vertebral artery tortuosity, predisposing to spinal, sprain: A medieval case study. International Journal of Paleopathology, 4, 4752.Google Scholar
Davidson, K. C., Weiford, E. C. and Dixon, G. D. (1975). Traumatic vertebral artery pseudoaneurysm following chiropractic manipulation. Radiology, 115, 651–2.Google Scholar
Deutsch, H. J. (1969). Aneurysm of the vertebral artery: Medicine in Vietnam. Laryngoscope, 79, 134–40.Google Scholar
Diekerhof, C. H., Reedt Dortland, R. W. H., Oner, F. C. and Verbout, A. J. (2002). Severe erosion of lumbar vertebral body because of abdominal aortic false aneurysm. Spine, 27(16), 382–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dory, M. A. (1985). CT demonstration of cervical vertebral erosion by tortuous vertebral artery. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 6, 641–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Edwards, A. (1969). Ehlers–Danlos syndrome with vertebral artery aneurysm. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 62, 1416.Google Scholar
Egnor, M. R., Page, L. K. and David, C. (1991). Vertebral artery aneurysm: A unique hazard of head banging by heavy metal rockers. Pediatric Neurosurgery, 17, 135–8.Google Scholar
Ekeström, S., Bergdahl, L. and Huttunen, H. (1983). Extracranial carotid and vertebral artery aneurysms. Scandinavian Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, 17, 135–9.Google Scholar
Elkin, D. C. and Harris, M. H. (1946). Arteriovenous aneurysm of the vertebral vessels. Annals of Surgery, 124, 934–9.Google Scholar
Eskander, M. S., Drew, J. M., Aubin, M. E., et al. (2010). Vertebral artery anatomy: A review of two hundred fifty magnetic resonance imaging scans. Spine, 35(23), 2035–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fakhry, S. M., Jacques, P. F. and Prater, H. J. (1988). Cervical vessel injury after blunt trauma. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 8, 501–8.Google Scholar
Freilich, M., Virapongse, C., Kier, E. L., Sarwar, M. and Bhimani, S. (1986). Foramen transversarium enlargement due to tortuosity of the vertebral artery. Spine, 11, 95–8.Google Scholar
Gatti, J.-M., Juan, L. H., Bironne, Ph. and Glowinski, J. (1983). Elargissement d’un trou de conjugaison cervical par une mégadolichoartère vertébrale. La Presse Médicale, 24, 2056.Google Scholar
George, B. and Laurian, C. (1980). Surgical approaches to the whole length of the vertebral artery with special reference to the third portion. Acta Neurochirurgica, 51, 259–72.Google Scholar
George, B. and Laurian, C. (1987). The Vertebral Artery: Pathology and Surgery. Wien: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glover, J. R., Kennedy, C. and Coral, A. (1990). Case report: Tortuous vertebral artery: Onset of symptoms during pregnancy. Clinical Radiology, 41, 66–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gluncie, V., Ivkic, G., Marin, D. and Percac, S. (1999). Anomalous origin of both vertebral arteries. Clinical Anatomy, 12, 281–4.Google Scholar
Gottesman, R. F., Sharma, P., Robinson, K. A., et al. (2012). Clinical characteristics of symptomatic vertebral artery dissection: A systematic review. Neurologist, 18(5), 245–54.Google Scholar
Guiffré, R. and Sherkat, S. (1999). The vertebral artery: Developmental pathology. Journal of Neurosurgical Sciences, 43, 175–89.Google Scholar
Habozit, B. and Battistelli, J.-M. (1990). Spontaneous aneurysm of the extracranial vertebral artery associated with spinal osseous anomaly. Annals of Vascular Surgery, 4, 600–3.Google Scholar
Hadley, M. (1958). Tortuosity and deflection of the vertebral artery. American Journal of Roentgenology, 80, 306–12.Google ScholarPubMed
Hadley, M. N., Spetzler, R. F., Masferrer, R., Martin, N. A. and Carter, L. P. (1985). Occipital artery to vertebral artery bypass procedure. Journal of Neurosurgery, 63, 622–5.Google Scholar
Harzer, K. and Töndbury, G. (1966). Zum Verhalten der Arteria vertebralis in der alternden Halswirbelsäule. Röntgenfortschritte, 104, 696–7.Google Scholar
Heifetz, G. J. (1945). Traumatic aneurysm of the first portion of the left vertebral artery. Annals of Surgery, 122, 102–10.Google Scholar
Holden, A., Adler, B. and Song, S. (1996). Bilateral vertebral artery tortuosity with concomitant vertebral erosion: CT and MRA findings. Australasian Radiology, 40, 65–7.Google Scholar
Hong, J. T., Park, D. K., Lee, M. J., Kim, S. W. and An, H. S. (2008). Anatomical variations of the vertebral artery segment in the lower cervical spine. Analysis by three-dimensional computed tomography angiography. Spine, 33(22), 2422–6.Google Scholar
Husni, E. A. and Storer, J. (1967). The syndrome of mechanical occlusion of the vertebral artery: further observations. Angiology, 18, 106–16.Google Scholar
Hyypä, S. E., Laasonen, E. M. and Halonen, V. (1974). Erosion of cervical vertebrae caused by elongaged and tortuous vertebral artery. Neuroradiology, 7, 4951.Google Scholar
Iyer, A. A. (1927). Some anomalies of the origin of the vertebral artery. Journal of Anatomy, 62, 121–2.Google Scholar
Jewell, K. L. (1977). Bilateral extracranial vertebral artery aneurysms. American Journal of Roentgenology, 128, 324–5.Google Scholar
Kelley, M. A. (1979). Skeletal changes produced by aortic aneurysms. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 51, 35–8.Google Scholar
Kikuchi, K. and Kowada, M. (1983). Nontraumatic extracranial aneurysm of the vertebral artery. Surgical Neurology, 19, 425–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, H. S., Lee, J. H., Cheh, G. and Lee, S. H. (2010). Cervical radiculopathy caused by vertebral artery loop formation: a case report and review of the literature. Journal of Korean Neurosurgical Society, 48(5), 465–8.Google Scholar
Kister, S. J and Rankow, R. M. (1966). Traumatic aneurysm of the first portion of the left vertebral artery: a case report. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 37, 546–51.Google Scholar
Koenigsberg, R. A., Aletich, V., DeBrun, G., Camras, L. R. and Ausman, J. L. (1997). Cervical vertebral arteriovenous fistula balloon embolization in a patient with neurofibromatosis type 1. Surgical Neurology, 47, 265–73.Google Scholar
Koniyama, M., Nakajima, H., Yamanaka, K. and Iwai, Y. (1999). Dual origin of the vertebral artery: Case report. Neurologica Medica Chirurgica (Tokyo), 39, 932–7.Google Scholar
Kono, A. K., Higashi, M., Morisaki, H., et al. (2010). High prevalence of vertebral artery tortuosity of Loeys–Dietz syndrome in comparison with Marfan syndrome. Japanese Journal of Radiology, 28, 273–7.Google Scholar
Kricun, R., Levitt, L. P. and Winn, H. R. (1992). Tortuous vertebral artery shown by MR and CT. American Journal of Roentgenology, 159, 613–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kurata, A., Suzuki, S., Iwamoto, K., et al. (2012). Altered hemodynamics associated with pathogenesis of the vertebral artery dissecting aneurysms. Stroke Research and Treatment, 2012, 716919.Google Scholar
Kwiatkowska, B., Szczurowski, J. and Nowakowski, D. (2014). Variation in foramina transversaria of human cervical vertebrae in the medieval population from Sypniewo (Poland). Anthropological Review, 77(2), 175–88.Google Scholar
Lasjaunias, P., Vallee, B., Person, H., Brugge, K. T. and Chu, M. (1985). The lateral spinal artery of the upper cervical spinal cord: Anatomy, normal variations, and angiographic aspects. Journal of Neurosurgery, 63, 235–41.Google Scholar
Laurian, C., George, B., Richard, T., Derome, D. and Guilmet, D. (1980). Intérét de l’abord chirurgical de l’artère vertébrale dans son segment extracranien à propos d’un anévrysme de l’artère vertébrale en C3. Journal des Maladies Vasculaires (Paris), 5, 149–50.Google Scholar
Lemke, A.-J., Benndorf, G., Liebig, T. and Felix, R. (1999). Anomalous origin of the right vertebral artery: Review of the literature and case report of right vertebral artery origin distal to the left subclavian artery. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 20, 1318–21.Google Scholar
Lindsey, R. W., Piepmeier, J. and Burkus, K. (1985). Tortuosity of the vertebral artery: An adventitious finding after cervical trauma. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 67A, 806–8.Google Scholar
Matula, C., Trattnig, S., Tschabitscher, M., Day, J. D. and Koos, W. Th. (1997). The course of the prevertebral segment of the vertebral artery: anatomy and clinical significance. Surgical Neurology, 48, 125–31.Google Scholar
Negoro, M., Nakaya, T., Terashima, K. and Sugita, K. (1990). Extracranial vertebral artery aneurysm with neurofibromatosis: endovascular treatment by detachable balloon. Neuroradiology, 31, 533–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nourbakhsh, A., Yang, J., Gallagher, S., et al. (2010). A safe approach to explore/identify the V2 segment of the vertebral artery during anterior approaches to cervical spine and/or arterial repairs: Anatomical study. Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine, 12(1), 2532.Google ScholarPubMed
Obayashi, T., Furuse, M., Tanaka, O. and Aihara, T. (1986). Tortuous vertebral artery simulating extradural spinal tumour. Neurochirurgia, 29, 96–8.Google ScholarPubMed
O’Connell, J., Sutton, D. and Kendal, D. (1975). Traumatic vertebral artery aneurysm. British Journal of Radiology, 48, 670–3.Google Scholar
Oga, M., Yuge, I., Terada, K., Shimizu, A. and Sugioka, Y. (1996). Tortuosity of the vertebral artery in patients with cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Spine, 21, 1085–9.Google Scholar
Oh, Y. M. and Eun, J. P. (2008). Congenital absence of a cervical spine pedicle: Report of two cases and review of the literature. Journal of Korean Neurosurgical Society, 44(6), 389–91.Google Scholar
Ortner, D. J. (2003). Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains, 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Palmer, F. J. and Sequiera, M. (1980). Cervical vertebral erosion and vertebral tortuosity: An angiographic study. Australasian Radiology, 24, 20–3.Google Scholar
Peyre, M., Ozanne, A., Bhangoo, R., et al. (2007). Pseudotumoral presentation of a cervical extracranial vertebral artery aneurysm in neurofibromatosis type 1: Case report. Neurosurgery, 61(3), E658.Google Scholar
Pritz, M. B., Chandler, W. F. and Kindt, G. W. (1981). Vertebral artery disease: Radiological evaluation, medical management, and microsurgical treatment. Neurosurgery, 9, 524–30.Google Scholar
Rameshbabu, C., Gupta, O. P., Gupta, K. K. and Qasim, M. (2014). Bilateral asymmetrical duplicated origin of vertebral arteries: Multidetector row CT angiographic study. Indian Journal of Radiology and Imaging, 24(1), 61–5.Google Scholar
Randall, J. M., Griffiths, P. D., Gardner-Medwin, D. and Gholkar, A. (1994). Thalamic infarction in childhood due to extracranial vertebral artery abnormalities. Neuropediatrics, 25, 262–4.Google Scholar
Rifkinson-Mann, S., Laub, J. and Haimov, M. (1986). A traumatic extracranial vertebral artery aneurysm: Case report and review of the literature. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 4, 288–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roy-Camille, R., Thibierge, M. and Metzger, J. (1982). Exploration d’une lacune de l’axis chez une patiente cervicalgigue. La Nouvelle Presse Médicale, 11, 453–4.Google Scholar
Salvador, M. R., Solé-Llenas, J. and Salvá, M. A. Q. (1981). Bilateral bone erosion of the cervical vertebrae caused by tortuosity of the vertebral arteries. Neurochirurgia, 24(6), 212–13.Google Scholar
Santos-Franco, J. A., Zenteno, M. and Lee, A. (2008). Dissecting aneurysms of the vertebrobasilar system: A comprehensive review on natural history and treatment options. Neurosurgical Review, 31(2), 131–40.Google Scholar
Sato, K., Watanabe, T., Yoshimoto, T. and Kameyama, M. (1994). Magnetic resonance imaging of C2 segmental type of vertebral artery. Surgical Neurology, 41, 4551.Google Scholar
Schievink, W. I. and Piepgras, D. G. (1991). Cervical vertebral aneurysms and arteriovenous fistulae in neurofibromatosis type 1: Case reports. Neurosurgery, 29, 760–5.Google Scholar
Schima, W., Stigbauer, R., Trattnig, S., et al. (1993). Case report: Cervical intervertebral foramen widening caused by vertebral artery tortuosity: Diagnosis with MR and color-coded Doppler sonography. British Journal of Radiology, 66, 165–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schimmel, D. H., Newton, T. H. and Mani, J. (1976). Widening of the cervical intervertebral foramen. Neuroradiology, 12, 310.Google Scholar
Schittek, A. (1999). Pseudoaneurysm of the vertebral artery. Texas Heart Institute Journal, 26, 90–5.Google ScholarPubMed
Schubiger, O. and Yasargil, M. G. (1978). Extracranial vertebral artery aneurysm with neurofibromatosis. Neuroradiology, 15, 171–3.Google Scholar
Sganzerla, E. P., Grimoldi, N., Vaccri, U., Rampini, P. M. and Gaini, S. M. (1987). Cervical vertebral erosion due to tortuous vertebral artery. Surgical Neurology, 28, 385–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheeran, S. R. and Sclafani, S. J. A. (2000). Syphilitic aneurysm of descending thoracic aorta causing vertebral body erosion and spastic paraparesis. Emergency Radiology, 7, 245–7.Google Scholar
Slover, W. P. and Kiley, R. F. (1965). Cervical vertebral erosion caused by tortuous vertebral artery. Radiology, 84, 112–14.Google Scholar
Sukuki, S., Kuwubara, K., Hatano, R. and Iwai, T. (1978). Duplicate origin of the left vertebral artery. Neuroradiology, 29, 27–9.Google Scholar
Sumimura, J., Nakao, K., Miyata, M., et al. (1988). Vertebral aneurysm of the neck. Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery (Torino), 29, 63–5.Google Scholar
Taitz, C. and Arensburg, B. (1991). Vertebral artery tortuosity with concomitant erosion of the foramen of the transverse process of the axis: Possible clinical implications. Acta Anatomica, 141, 104–8.Google Scholar
Takahashi, Y., Sasaki, Y., Toshihiko, S. and Suehiro, S. (2007). Descending thoracic aortic aneurysm complicated with severe vertebral erosion. European Journal of Cardiothoracic Surgery, 31, 941–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Takasato, Y., Hayashi, H., Kobayashi, T. and Hashimoto, Y. (1992). Duplicated origin of the right vertebral artery with rudimentary and accessory left vertebral arteries. Neuroradiology, 34, 287–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Talla, R., Galea, M., Lythgo, N., Angeli, T. and Eser, P. (2011) Contralateral comparison of bone geometry, BMD and muscle function in the lower leg and forearm after stroke. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions, 11(4), 306–13.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. E., Eilber, F. and Baker, J. D. (1979). Vertebral artery aneurysm: case report and review of the literature. Surgery, 85, 583–5.Google Scholar
Tulsi, R. S. and Perrett, L. V. (1975). The anatomy and radiology of the cervical vertebrae and the tortuous vertebral artery. Australasian Radiology, 19, 258–64.Google Scholar
Vanrietvelde, F., Lemmerling, M., deRooy, J., et al. (1999). Non-invasive diagnostic assessment of extensive vertebral artery tortuosity with enlargement of the intervertebral foramen. European Journal of Radiology, 32, 149–52.Google Scholar
Viswani, M. and Waldron, H. A. (1997). The earliest case of extracranial aneurysm of the vertebral artery. British Journal of Neurosurgery, 11, 164–5.Google Scholar
Wackenheim, A. (1977). Eléments de séméiologie radiologique de l’artère vertébrale. In Kehr, P. and Jung, A., eds., Pathologie et chirurgie de l’artère vertébrale. Paris: Expansion Scientifique Francaise, pp. 3141.Google Scholar
Wackenheim, A. and Babin, E. (1969). Excursion extratransversaire de l’artére vertébrale. La Presse Medicale, 77, 1213–14.Google Scholar
Wakely, J. and Smith, A. (1998). A possible eighteenth to nineteenth century example of a popliteal aneurysm from Leicester. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 8, 5660.Google Scholar
Waldron, T. (2009). Palaeopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Waldron, T. and Antoine, D. (2002). Tortuosity or aneurysm? The palaeopathology of some abnormalities of the vertebral artery. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 12, 7988.Google Scholar
Walker, E. G. (1983). Evidence for prehistoric cardiovascular disease of syphilitic origin on the Northern Plains. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60, 499503.Google Scholar
Welsby, D. A. and Antoine, D. (2014). Kawa, the Pharaonic and Kushite Town of Gematon: History and Archaeology of the Site. London: Sudan Archaeological Research Society.Google Scholar
Youll, B. D., Coutellier, A., Dubois, B., Leger, J. M. and Bousser, M. G. (1990). Three cases of spontaneous extracranial vertebral artery dissection. Stroke, 21, 618–25.Google Scholar
Yuan, S. M. (2016). Aberrant origin of vertebral artery and its clinical implications. Brazilian Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery, 31(1), 52–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Yünten, N., Alper, H., Calli, C., Selcuki, D. and Ustün, E.-E. (1998). Cervical osseous changes associated with vertebral artery tortuosity. Journal of Neuroradiology, 25, 136–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Zimmerman, H. B. and Farrell, W. J. (1970). Cervical vertebral erosion caused by vertebral artery tortuosity. American Journal of Roentgenology, 108, 767–70.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×