Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-pftt2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-14T13:54:56.041Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 5 - Neurocognitive Dysfunction and Geriatric Neurocritical Care

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 October 2018

By
Tracy J. McGrane ,
Pratik P. Pandharipande  and
Christopher G. Hughes
Edited by
Shamsuddin Akhtar  and
Stanley Rosenbaum
Shamsuddin Akhtar
Affiliation:
Yale University School of Medicine
Stanley Rosenbaum
Affiliation:
Yale University School of Medicine
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Principles of Geriatric Critical Care , pp. 63 - 80
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2018

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Farrall, AJ, Wardlaw, JM Blood-brain barrier: ageing and microvascular disease–systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurobiol Aging 2009; 30(3):337–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alvis, BD, Hughes, CG Physiology considerations in geriatric patients. Anesthesiol Clin 2015; 33(3):447–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abbott, NJ, Ronnback, L, Hansson, E. Astrocyte-endothelial interactions at the blood-brain barrier. Nat Rev Neurosci 2006; 7(1):41–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharshar, T, Hopkinson, NS, Orlikowski, D, Annane, D. Science review: the brain in sepsis – culprit and victim. Crit Care 2005; 9(1):37–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, Westendorp, RG, Saczynski, JS Delirium in elderly people. Lancet 2014; 383(9920):911–22.Google ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edn). Washington, DC: APA, 2013.Google Scholar
Morandi, A, Davis, D, Bellelli, G, et al. The diagnosis of delirium superimposed on dementia: an emerging challenge. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2017; 18(1):12–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ely, EW, Inouye, SK, Bernard, GR, et al. Delirium in mechanically ventilated patients: validity and reliability of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). JAMA 2001; 286(21):2703–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergeron, N, Dubois, MJ, Dumont, M, Dial, S, Skrobik, Y. Intensive care delirium screening checklist: evaluation of a new screening tool. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27(5):859–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sessler, CN, Gosnell, MS, Grap, MJ, et al. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166(10):1338–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morandi, A, Han, JH, Meagher, D, et al. Detecting delirium superimposed on dementia: evaluation of the diagnostic performance of the Richmond Agitation and Sedation Scale. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2016; 17(9):828–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morandi, A, McCurley, J, Vasilevskis, EE, et al. Tools to detect delirium superimposed on dementia: a systematic review. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012; 60(11):2005–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitasova, A, Kostalova, M, Bednarik, J, et al. Poststroke delirium incidence and outcomes: validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU). Crit Care Med 2012; 40(2):484–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Geriatrics Society Expert Panel on Postoperative Delirium in Older Adults. American Geriatrics Society abstracted clinical practice guideline for postoperative delirium in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2015; 63(1):142–50.Google Scholar
Peterson, JF, Pun, BT, Dittus, RS, et al. Delirium and its motoric subtypes: a study of 614 critically ill patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54(3):479–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trzepacz, PT, Mittal, D, Torres, R, et al. Validation of the Delirium Rating Scale–Revised-98: comparison with the delirium rating scale and the cognitive test for delirium. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci 2001; 13(2):229–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, Kosar, CM, Tommet, D, et al. The CAM-S: development and validation of a new scoring system for delirium severity in 2 cohorts. Ann Intern Med 2014; 160(8):526–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abildstrom, H, Rasmussen, LS, Rentowl, P, et al. Cognitive dysfunction 1–2 years after non-cardiac surgery in the elderly. ISPOCD group. International Study of Post-Operative Cognitive Dysfunction. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000; 44(10):1246–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruce, KM, Yelland, GW, Smith, JA, Robinson, SR Recovery of cognitive function after coronary artery bypass graft operations. Ann Thorac Surg 2013; 95(4):1306–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cormack, F, Shipolini, A, Awad, WI, et al. A meta-analysis of cognitive outcome following coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36(9):2118–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selnes, OA, Gottesman, RF, Grega, MA, et al. Cognitive and neurologic outcomes after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(3):250–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selnes, OA, Grega, MA, Bailey, MM, et al. Neurocognitive outcomes 3 years after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: a controlled study. Ann Thorac Surg 2007; 84(6):1885–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salluh, JI, Wang, H, Schneider, EB, et al. Outcome of delirium in critically ill patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2015; 350:h2538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witlox, J, Eurelings, LS, de Jonghe, JF, et al. Delirium in elderly patients and the risk of postdischarge mortality, institutionalization, and dementia: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2010; 304(4):443–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milbrandt, EB, Deppen, S, Harrison, PL, et al. Costs associated with delirium in mechanically ventilated patients. Crit Care Med 2004; 32(4):955–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Franco, K, Litaker, D, Locala, J, Bronson, D. The cost of delirium in the surgical patient. Psychosomatics 2001; 42(1):68–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein Klouwenberg, PM, Zaal, IJ, Spitoni, C, et al. The attributable mortality of delirium in critically ill patients: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2014; 349:g6652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patel, SB, Poston, JT, Pohlman, A, Hall, JB, Kress, JP Rapidly reversible, sedation-related delirium versus persistent delirium in the intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014; 189(6):658–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neufeld, KJ, Leoutsakos, JM, Sieber, FE, et al. Outcomes of early delirium diagnosis after general anesthesia in the elderly. Anesth Analg 2013; 117(2):471–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lat, I, McMillian, W, Taylor, S, et al. The impact of delirium on clinical outcomes in mechanically ventilated surgical and trauma patients. Crit Care Med 2009; 37(6):1898–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruggiero, C, Bonamassa, L, Pelini, L, et al. Early post-surgical cognitive dysfunction is a risk factor for mortality among hip fracture hospitalized older persons. Osteoporos Int 2017; 28(2):667–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, TN, Raeburn, CD, Tran, ZV, Brenner, LA, Moss, M. Motor subtypes of postoperative delirium in older adults. Arch Surg 2011; 146(3):295–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pandharipande, PP, Girard, TD, Jackson, JC, et al. Long-term cognitive impairment after critical illness. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(14):1306–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, CG, Patel, MB, Jackson, JC, et al. Surgery and anesthesia exposure is not a risk factor for cognitive impairment after major noncardiac surgery and critical illness. Ann Surg 2016.Google Scholar
Saczynski, JS, Marcantonio, ER, Quach, L, et al. Cognitive trajectories after postoperative delirium. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(1):30–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, Marcantonio, ER, Kosar, CM, et al. The short-term and long-term relationship between delirium and cognitive trajectory in older surgical patients. Alzheimers Dement 2016; 12(7):766–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fong, TG, Jones, RN, Marcantonio, ER, et al. Adverse outcomes after hospitalization and delirium in persons with Alzheimer disease. Ann Intern Med 2012; 156(12):848–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fong, TG, Jones, RN, Shi, P, et al. Delirium accelerates cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2009; 72(18):1570–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, DH, Muniz-Terrera, G, Keage, HA, et al. Association of delirium with cognitive decline in late life: a neuropathologic study of 3 population-based cohort studies. JAMA Psychiatry 2017; 74(3):244–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLullich, AM, Beaglehole, A, Hall, RJ, Meagher, DJ Delirium and long-term cognitive impairment. Int Rev Psychiatry 2009; 21(1):30–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fried, TR, Bradley, EH, Towle, VR, Allore, H. Understanding the treatment preferences of seriously ill patients. N Engl J Med 2002; 346(14):1061–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crosby, G, Culley, DJ, Hyman, BT Preoperative cognitive assessment of the elderly surgical patient: a call for action. J Am Soc Anesthesiol 2011; 114(6):1265–68.Google Scholar
van Eijk, MM, van Marum, RJ, Klijn, IA, et al. Comparison of delirium assessment tools in a mixed intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2009; 37(6):1881–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spronk, PE, Riekerk, B, Hofhuis, J, Rommes, JH Occurrence of delirium is severely underestimated in the ICU during daily care. Intensive Care Med 2009; 35(7):1276–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inouye, SK, van Dyck, CH, Alessi, CA, et al. Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method – a new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113(12):941–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panitchote, A, Tangvoraphonkchai, K, Suebsoh, N, et al. Under-recognition of delirium in older adults by nurses in the intensive care unit setting. Aging Clin Exp Res 2015; 27(5):735–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barr, J, Fraser, G, Puntillo, K, et al. American College of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, and delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2013; 41(1):263–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benhamou, D, Brouquet, A. Postoperative cerebral dysfunction in the elderly: diagnosis and prophylaxis. J Visc Surg 2016; 153(Suppl 6):S27–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S-w, Han, H-S, Jung, H-w, et al. Multidimensional frailty score for the prediction of postoperative mortality risk. JAMA Surgery 2014; 149(7):633–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leung, JM, Tsai, TL, Sands, LP Preoperative frailty in older surgical patients is associated with early postoperative delirium. Anesth Analg 2011; 112(5):1199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, AM, Batke, JN, Dea, N, et al. Prospective analysis of adverse events in surgical treatment of degenerative spondylolisthesis. Spine J 2014; 14(12):2905–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nadelson, MR, Sanders, RD, Avidan, MS Perioperative cognitive trajectory in adults. Br J Anaesth 2014; 112(3):440–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deiner, S, Silverstein, J. Postoperative delirium and cognitive dysfunction. Br J Anaesth 2009; 103(Suppl 1):i41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, NY, Hirao, A, Sieber, F. Association between intraoperative blood pressure and postoperative delirium in elderly hip fracture patients. PLoS One 2015; 10(4):e0123892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bijker, JB, van Klei, WA, Kappen, TH, et al. Incidence of intraoperative hypotension as a function of the chosen definition: literature definitions applied to a retrospective cohort using automated data collection. Anesthesiology 2007; 107(2):213–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hori, D, Brown, C, Ono, M, et al. Arterial pressure above the upper cerebral autoregulation limit during cardiopulmonary bypass is associated with postoperative delirium. Br J Anaesth 2014; 113(6):1009–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carson, JL, Terrin, ML, Noveck, H, et al. Liberal or restrictive transfusion in high-risk patients after hip surgery. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(26):2453–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gruber-Baldini, AL, Marcantonio, E, Orwig, D, et al. Delirium outcomes in a randomized trial of blood transfusion thresholds in hospitalized older adults with hip fracture. J Am Geriatr Soc 2013; 61(8):1286–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasilevskis, EE, Han, JH, Hughes, CG, Ely, EW Epidemiology and risk factors for delirium across hospital settings. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2012; 26(3):277–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pandharipande, PP, Pun, BT, Herr, DL, et al. Effect of sedation with dexmedetomidine vs lorazepam on acute brain dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients: the MENDS randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007; 298(22):2644–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kamdar, BB, Niessen, T, Colantuoni, E, et al. Delirium transitions in the medical ICU: exploring the role of sleep quality and other factors. Crit Care Med 2015; 43(1):135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riker, RR, Shehabi, Y, Bokesch, PM, et al. Dexmedetomidine vs midazolam for sedation of critically ill patients: a randomized trial. JAMA 2009; 301(5):489–99.Google ScholarPubMed
Sprung, J, Jankowski, CJ, Roberts, RO, et al. Anesthesia and incident dementia: a population-based, nested, case-control study. Mayo Clinic Proc 2013; 88(6):552–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, C-W, Lin, C-C, Chen, K-B, et al. Increased risk of dementia in people with previous exposure to general anesthesia: a nationwide population-based case-control study. Alzheimers Dement 2014; 10(2):196–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussain, M, Berger, M, Eckenhoff, RG, Seitz, DP General anesthetic and the risk of dementia in elderly patients: current insights. Clin Interv Aging 2014; 9:1619–28.Google ScholarPubMed
Liu, Y, Pan, N, Ma, Y, et al. Inhaled sevoflurane may promote progression of amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a prospective, randomized parallel-group study. Am J Med Sci 2013; 345(5):355–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aiello Bowles, EJ, Larson, EB, Pong, RP, et al. Anesthesia exposure and risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: a prospective study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2016; 64(3):602–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avidan, MS, Searleman, AC, Storandt, M, et al. Long-term cognitive decline in older subjects was not attributable to noncardiac surgery or major illness. Anesthesiology 2009; 111(5):964–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dokkedal, U, Hansen, TG, Rasmussen, LS, Mengel-From, J, Christensen, CK Cognitive functioning after surgery in middle-aged and elderly Danish twins. Anesthesiology 2016; 124(2):312–321.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sprung, J, Roberts, RO, Knopman, DS, et al. Mild cognitive impairment and exposure to general anesthesia for surgeries and procedures: a population-based case-control study. Anesth Analg 2017; 124(4):1277–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schreiber, MP, Colantuoni, E, Bienvenu, OJ, et al. Corticosteroids and transition to delirium in patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 2014; 42(6):1480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, C, MacLullich, AM At the extreme end of the psychoneuroimmunological spectrum: delirium as a maladaptive sickness behaviour response. Brain Behav Immun 2013; 28:1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, CG, Pandharipande, PP, Thompson, JL, et al. Endothelial activation and blood-brain barrier injury as risk factors for delirium in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2016; 44(9):e809–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cunningham, C, Wilcockson, DC, Campion, S, Lunnon, K, Perry, VH Central and systemic endotoxin challenges exacerbate the local inflammatory response and increase neuronal death during chronic neurodegeneration. J Neurosci 2005; 25(40):9275–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terrando, N, Eriksson, LI, Kyu Ryu, J, et al. Resolving postoperative neuroinflammation and cognitive decline. Ann Neurol 2011; 70(6):986–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cerejeira, J, Firmino, H, Vaz-Serra, A, Mukaetova-Ladinska, EB The neuroinflammatory hypothesis of delirium. Acta Neuropathol 2010; 119(6):737–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, CG, Patel, MB, Pandharipande, PP Pathophysiology of acute brain dysfunction: what’s the cause of all this confusion? Curr Opin Crit Care 2012; 18(5):518–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walston, J, Hadley, EC, Ferrucci, L, et al. Research agenda for frailty in older adults: toward a better understanding of physiology and etiology – summary from the American Geriatrics Society/National Institute on Aging Research Conference on Frailty in Older Adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006; 54(6):991–1001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maldonado, JR Neuropathogenesis of delirium: review of current etiologic theories and common pathways. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2013; 21(12):1190–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abbott, NJ Astrocyte-endothelial interactions and blood-brain barrier permeability. J Anat 2002; 200(5):523–34.Google ScholarPubMed
Peters, R. Ageing and the brain. Postgrad Med J 2006; 82(964):84–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hshieh, TT, Fong, TG, Marcantonio, ER, Inouye, SK Cholinergic deficiency hypothesis in delirium: a synthesis of current evidence. J Gerontol A: Biol Sci Med Sci 2008; 63(7):764–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcantonio, ER Postoperative delirium: a 76-year-old woman with delirium following surgery. JAMA 2012; 308(1):73–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westhoff, D, Witlox, J, Koenderman, L, et al. Preoperative cerebrospinal fluid cytokine levels and the risk of postoperative delirium in elderly hip fracture patients. J Neuroinflam 2013; 10(1):122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dugan, LL, Ali, SS, Shekhtman, G, et al. IL-6 mediated degeneration of forebrain GABAergic interneurons and cognitive impairment in aged mice through activation of neuronal NADPH oxidase. PLoS One 2009; 4(5):e5518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pandharipande, PP, Ely, E, Maze, M. Dexmedetomidine for sedation and perioperative management of critically ill patients. Semin Anesth Perioperat Med Pain 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fjell, AM, Westlye, LT, Amlien, I, et al. High consistency of regional cortical thinning in aging across multiple samples. Cereb Cortex 2009:bhn232.Google ScholarPubMed
Fjell, AM, Westlye, LT, Grydeland, H, et al. Accelerating cortical thinning: unique to dementia or universal in aging? Cereb Cortex 2012:bhs379.Google ScholarPubMed
Kemps, E, Newson, R. Comparison of adult age differences in verbal and visuo-spatial memory: the importance of ‘pure’, parallel and validated measures. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2006; 28(3):341–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, R, Schwarb, H. The influence of aging and frontal function on the neural correlates of regulative and evaluative aspects of cognitive control. Neuropsychology 2006; 20(4):468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunther, ML, Morandi, A, Krauskopf, E, et al. The association between brain volumes, delirium duration, and cognitive outcomes in intensive care unit survivors: the VISIONS cohort magnetic resonance imaging study. Crit Care Med 2012; 40(7):2022–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morandi, A, Rogers, BP, Gunther, ML, et al. The relationship between delirium duration, white matter integrity, and cognitive impairment in intensive care unit survivors as determined by diffusion tensor imaging: the VISIONS prospective cohort magnetic resonance imaging study. Crit Care Med 2012; 40(7):2182–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lundström, M, Edlund, A, Karlsson, S, et al. A multifactorial intervention program reduces the duration of delirium, length of hospitalization, and mortality in delirious patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005; 53(4):622–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, S, Rich, C, Weitzel, T, Vollmer, C, Eden, B. Delirium prevention for cognitive, sensory, and mobility impairments. Res Theory Nurs Pract 2008; 22(2):103–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, FH, Neal, K, Fenlon, K, Hassan, S, Inouye, SK Sustainability and scalability of the hospital elder life program at a community hospital. J Am Geriatr Soc 2011; 59(2):359–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Geriatrics Society Expert Panel on Postoperative Delirium in Older Adults. Postoperative delirium in older adults: best practice statement from the American Geriatrics Society. J Am Coll Surg 2015; 220(2):136–48.Google Scholar
Inouye, SK, Bogardus, ST Jr, Baker, DI, Leo-Summers, L, Cooney, LM Jr. The Hospital Elder Life Program: a model of care to prevent cognitive and functional decline in older hospitalized patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48(12):1697–706.Google Scholar
Morandi, A, Brummel, NE, Ely, EW Sedation, delirium and mechanical ventilation: the “ABCDE” approach. Curr Opin Crit Care 2011; 17(1):43–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balas, MC, Vasilevskis, EE, Olsen, KM, et al. Effectiveness and safety of the awakening and breathing coordination, delirium monitoring/management, and early exercise/mobility (ABCDE) bundle. Crit Care Med 2014; 42(5):1024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dale, CR, Kannas, DA, Fan, VS, et al. Improved analgesia, sedation, and delirium protocol associated with decreased duration of delirium and mechanical ventilation. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2014; 11(3):367–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes-Daly, MA, Phillips, G, Ely, EW. Improving hospital survival and reducing brain dysfunction at seven California community hospitals: implementing PAD guidelines via the ABCDEF bundle in 6,064 patients. Crit Care Med 2017; 45(2):171–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohman, RA, Bhattacharya, TK, Wojcik, E, Rhodes, JS Exercise reduces activation of microglia isolated from hippocampus and brain of aged mice. J Neuroinflam 2013; 10(1):114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaller, SJ, Anstey, M, Blobner, M, et al. Early, goal-directed mobilisation in the surgical intensive care unit: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2016; 388(10052):1377–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schweickert, WD, Pohlman, MC, Pohlman, AS, et al. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 373(9678):1874–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Geriatrics Society Beers Criteria Update Expert Panel. American Geriatrics Society updated Beers criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012; 60(4):616–31.Google Scholar
Fong, HK, Sands, LP, Leung, JM The role of postoperative analgesia in delirium and cognitive decline in elderly patients: a systematic review. Anesth Analg 2006; 102(4):1255–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lepouse, C, Lautner, CA, Liu, L, Gomis, P, Leon, A Emergence delirium in adults in the post-anaesthesia care unit. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96(6):747–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McPherson, JA, Wagner, CE, Boehm, LM, et al. Delirium in the cardiovascular ICU: exploring modifiable risk factors. Crit Care Med 2013; 41(2):405–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pandharipande, PP, Shintani, A, Peterson, J, et al. Lorazepam is an independent risk factor for transitioning to delirium in intensive care unit patients. Anesthesiology 2006; 104(1):21–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pandharipande, PP, Cotton, BA, Shintani, A, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for development of delirium in surgical and trauma intensive care unit patients. J Trauma 2008; 65(1):34–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Djaiani, G, Silverton, N, Fedorko, L, et al. Dexmedetomidine versus propofol sedation reduces delirium after cardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesiology 2016; 124(2):362–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carrasco, G, Baeza, N, Cabre, L, et al. Dexmedetomidine for the treatment of hyperactive delirium refractory to haloperidol in nonintubated ICU patients: a nonrandomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2016; 44(7):1295–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reade, MC, Eastwood, GM, Bellomo, R, et al. Effect of dexmedetomidine added to standard care on ventilator-free time in patients with agitated delirium: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2016; 315(14):1460–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Su, X, Meng, ZT, Wu, XH, et al. Dexmedetomidine for prevention of delirium in elderly patients after non-cardiac surgery: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karren, EA, King, AB, Hughes, CG Dexmedetomidine for prevention of delirium in elderly patients after non-cardiac surgery. J Thorac Dis 2016; 8(12):E1759–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aldecoa, C, Bettelli, G, Bilotta, F, et al. European Society of Anaesthesiology evidence-based and consensus-based guideline on postoperative delirium. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2017; 34(4):192–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grover, S, Mahajan, S, Chakrabarti, S, Avasthi, A. Comparative effectiveness of quetiapine and haloperidol in delirium: a single blind randomized controlled study. World J Psychiatry 2016; 6(3):365–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hulshof, TA, Zuidema, SU, Ostelo, RW, Luijendijk, HJ. The mortality risk of conventional antipsychotics in elderly patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2015; 16(10):817–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalisvaart, KJ, de Jonghe, JF, Bogaards, MJ, et al. Haloperidol prophylaxis for elderly hip-surgery patients at risk for delirium: a randomized placebo-controlled study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005; 53(10):1658–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, W, Li, HL, Wang, DX, et al. Haloperidol prophylaxis decreases delirium incidence in elderly patients after noncardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial*. Crit Care Med 2012; 40(3):731–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Boogaard, M, Schoonhoven, L, van Achterberg, T, van der Hoeven, JG, Pickkers, P. Haloperidol prophylaxis in critically ill patients with a high risk for delirium. Crit Care 2013; 17(1):R9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Qadheeb, NS, Skrobik, Y, Schumaker, G, et al. Preventing ICU subsyndromal delirium conversion to delirium with low-dose IV haloperidol: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Crit Care Med 2016; 44(3):583–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Girard, TD, Pandharipande, PP, Carson, SS, et al. Feasibility, efficacy, and safety of antipsychotics for intensive care unit delirium: the MIND randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2010; 38(2):428–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skrobik, YK, Bergeron, N, Dumont, M, Gottfried, SB Olanzapine vs haloperidol: treating delirium in a critical care setting. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30(3):444–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devlin, JW, Roberts, RJ, Fong, JJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of quetiapine in critically ill patients with delirium: a prospective, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Crit Care Med 2010; 38(2):419–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Eijk, MM, Roes, KC, Honing, ML, et al. Effect of rivastigmine as an adjunct to usual care with haloperidol on duration of delirium and mortality in critically ill patients: a multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled randomised trial. Lancet 2010; 376(9755):1829–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gamberini, M, Bolliger, D, Lurati Buse, GA, et al. Rivastigmine for the prevention of postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing elective cardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2009; 37(5):1762–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liptzin, B, Laki, A, Garb, JL, Fingeroth, R, Krushell, R. Donepezil in the prevention and treatment of post-surgical delirium. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005; 13(12):1100–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcantonio, ER, Palihnich, K, Appleton, P, Davis, RB Pilot randomized trial of donepezil hydrochloride for delirium after hip fracture. J Am Geriatr Soc 2011; 59(Supple 2):S282–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sauër, A-MC, Slooter, AJ, Veldhuijzen, DS, et al. Intraoperative dexamethasone and delirium after cardiac surgery: a randomized clinical trial. Anesth Analg 2014; 119(5):1046–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morandi, A, Hughes, CG, Girard, TD, et al. Statins and brain dysfunction: a hypothesis to reduce the burden of cognitive impairment in patients who are critically ill. CHEST Journal 2011; 140(3):580–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Page, VJ, Davis, D, Zhao, XB, et al. Statin use and risk of delirium in the critically ill. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014; 189(6):666–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morandi, A, Hughes, CG, Thompson, JL, et al. Statins and delirium during critical illness: a multicenter, prospective cohort study. Crit Care Med 2014; 42(8):1899.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, MT, Cheng, BC, Lee, TM, Gin, T, Group, CT. BIS-guided anesthesia decreases postoperative delirium and cognitive decline. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 2013; 25(1):33–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Purdon, PL, Pierce, ET, Mukamel, EA, et al. Electroencephalogram signatures of loss and recovery of consciousness from propofol. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2013; 110(12):E1142–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radtke, FM, Franck, M, Lendner, J, et al. Monitoring depth of anaesthesia in a randomized trial decreases the rate of postoperative delirium but not postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Br J Anaesth 2013; 110(Suppl 1):i98–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
www.iculiberation.org.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×