Section 3 - Sourcing
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 June 2019
Edited by
Edited in association with
Summary
This chapter does two things. First, it shows how social identity principles can explain the basic psychological and behavioural effects of crowd membership. Second, it describes some recent research and applied work that shows how these basic effects operate to contribute to harmonious outcomes in potentially dangerous crowd events.
We begin by explaining some of the fundamental psychology of crowd membership in the next section.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Social ScaffoldingApplying the Lessons of Contemporary Social Science to Health and Healthcare, pp. 129 - 212Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2019
References
References
Alnabulsi, H. & Drury, J. (2014). Social identification moderates the effect of crowd density on safety at the Hajj. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111: 9091–9096.Google Scholar
Carter, H., Drury, J., Rubin, G. J., Williams, R. & Amlôt, R. (2012). Public experiences of mass casualty decontamination. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism, 10: 280–289.Google Scholar
Carter, H, Drury, J., Amlôt, R., Rubin, G. J. & Williams, R. (2013a). Perceived responder legitimacy and group identification predict cooperation and compliance in a mass decontamination field exercise. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35: 575–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, H., Drury, J., Rubin, G. J., Williams, R. & Amlôt, R. (2013b). Communication during mass casualty decontamination: Highlighting the gaps. International Journal of Emergency Services, 2: 29–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, H., Drury, J., Rubin, G. J., Williams, R. & Amlôt, R. (2013c). The effect of communication during mass decontamination. Disaster Prevention and Management, 22: 132–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, H., Drury, J., Amlôt, R., Rubin, G. J. & Williams, R. (2014a). Effective responder communication, perceived responder legitimacy and group identification predict public cooperation and compliance in a mass decontamination visualisation experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, doi: 10.1111/jasp.12286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, H., Drury, J., Amlôt, R., Rubin, G. J. & Williams, R. (2014b). Effective responder communication improves efficiency and psychological outcomes in a mass decontamination field experiment: Implications for public behaviour in the event of a chemical incident. PLoS One, 9: e89846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drury, J. & Reicher, S. (2005). Explaining enduring empowerment: A comparative study of collective action and psychological outcomes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35: 35–58.Google Scholar
Drury, J., Novelli, D. & Stott, C. (2015). Managing to avert disaster: Explaining collective resilience at an outdoor music event. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45: 533–547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fruin, J. J. (1993). The causes and prevention of crowd disasters. Originally presented at the First International Conference on Engineering for Crowd Safety, London, March. (Revised exclusively for crowdsafe.com, January 2002.)Google Scholar
Neville, F. & Reicher, S. (2011). The experience of collective participation: Shared identity, relatedness, and emotionality. Contemporary Social Science, 6: 377–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Novelli, D., Drury, J. & Reicher, S. (2010). Come together: Two studies concerning the impact of group relations on ‘personal space’. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49: 223–236.Google Scholar
Novelli, D., Drury, J., Reicher, S. & Stott, C. (2013). Crowdedness mediates the effect of social identification on positive emotion in a crowd: A survey of two crowd events. PLoS One, 8: e78983.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reicher, S. (2011). Mass action and mundane reality: An argument for putting crowd analysis at the centre of the social sciences. Contemporary Social Science, 6: 433–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stott, C. & Reicher, S. (1998). Crowd action as inter-group process: Introducing the police perspective. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28 : 509–529.Google Scholar
Stott, C., Adang, O., Livingstone, A. & Schreiber, M. (2007). Variability in the collective behaviour of England fans at Euro2004: ‘Hooliganism’, public order policing and social change. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38: 75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
References
Ahmeti, F. (2014). Microfinance as a tool for economic development in transitional countries: Experience from Kosovo. European Scientific Journal, 10: 269–287.Google Scholar
Alexander, D. A. & Klein, S. (2009). First responders after disasters: A review of stress reactions, at-risk, vulnerability, and resilience factors. Prehospital Disaster Medicine, 24: 87–94.Google Scholar
Black, M. E. & Healing, T. D. (1993). Communicable diseases in former Yugoslavia and in refugees arriving in the United Kingdom. Communicable Disease Report, 3: R87–90.Google ScholarPubMed
Brooks, S. K., Dunn, R., Sage, C. A. M. et al. (2015). Risk and resilience factors affecting the psychological wellbeing of individuals deployed in humanitarian relief roles after a disaster. Journal of Mental Health, 24: 385–413; doi: 10.3109/09638237.2015.1057334.Google Scholar
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C. et al. (2006). Psychological First Aid: Field Operations Guide, 2nd edition. Durham, NC: National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD.Google Scholar
Cardozo, B. L., Crawford, C. G., Eriksson, C. et al. (2012). Psychological distress, depression, anxiety, and burnout among International humanitarian aid workers: A longitudinal study. PLoS One, September 12; doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044948.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012). Emergencies and the elderly: Taking care of older adults during a disaster. See https://blogs.cdc.gov/publichealthmatters/2012/09/emergencies-and-the-elderly/.Google Scholar
Central Intelligence Agency (2016). World factbook. See www.cia.gov/library/publications/download/download-2016/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
CRED (2015). The Human Cost of Natural Disasters. 2015. A Global Perspective. Louvain: Université Catholique de Louvain.Google Scholar
CRED–UNISDR. ( 2015). The Human Cost of Weather Related Disasters 1995–2015. Louvain: Université Catholique de Louvain.Google Scholar
Chriman, A. K. & Dougherty, J. G. (2014). Mass trauma: Disasters, terrorism, and war. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23: 257–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D. V., Kibuuka, H., Miljard, M. et al. (2015). Long-term sequelae after Ebola virus disease in Bundibugyo, Uganda: A retrospective cohort study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 15: 905–912.Google Scholar
Degomme, O. & Guha-Sapir, D. (2010). Patterns of mortality rates in Darfur conflict. The Lancet, 375: 294–300.Google Scholar
Evans, D. K. & Popova, A. (2015). Orphans and Ebola. Estimating the Secondary Impact of a Public Health Crisis. Washington, DC: World Bank Group, Africa Region, Office of the Chief Economist.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forbes, D., Creamer, M. & Wade, D. (2012). Psychological support and recovery in the aftermath of natural disasters. International Psychiatry, 9: 15–17.Google Scholar
Ghobarah, H. A., Huth, P. & Russett, B. (2004). The post-war public health effects of civil conflict. Social Science and Medicine, 59: 869–884.Google Scholar
Grünewald, F., Boyer, B., Maury, H. & Pascal, P. (2007). Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004: 10 Lessons Learnt from the Humanitarian Response Funded by the French State. Paris: Ministère des Affaires Etrangères et Européennes. See http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/430_Int_Tsunami-2.pdf.Google Scholar
Healing, T. D., Drysdale, S. F., Black, M. E. et al. (1996). Monitoring health in the war affected areas of the former Yugoslavia 1992–1993. European Journal of Public Health, 6: 245–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helleringer, S. & Noymer, A. (2015). Magnitude of Ebola relative to other causes of death in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea. The Lancet Global Health, 3: e255–256.Google Scholar
Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C. et al. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 70: 283–315.Google Scholar
Laframboise, N. & Loko, B. (2012). IMF Working Paper. Natural Disasters: Mitigating Impact, Managing Risks. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, External Relations Department & Western Hemisphere Department.Google Scholar
Lock, S., Rubin, G. J., Murray, V. et al. (2012). Secondary stressors and extreme events and disasters: A systematic review of primary research from 2010–2011. PLoS Currents Disasters, 29 October; doi: 10.1371/currents.dis.a9b76fed1b2dd5c5bfcfc13c87a2f24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFarlane, C. A. (2004). Risks associated with the psychological adjustment of humanitarian aid workers. Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2004-1.Google Scholar
Morganstein, J. C., Benedek, D. M. & Ursano, R. J. (2016). Post-traumatic stress in disaster first responders. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 10: 1–2; doi: 10.1017/dmp.2016.10.Google Scholar
Noji, E. K, editor (1997). The Public Health Consequences of Disasters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Noji, E. K., Kelen, G. D., Armenian, H. K. et al. (1990). The 1988 earthquake in Soviet Armenia: A case study. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 19: 891–897.Google Scholar
Pan American Health Organisation. (2017). Care of Mentally or Physically Challenged Persons and the Elderly. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Parpia, A. S., Ndeffo-Mbah, M. L., Wenzel, N. S. et al. (2016). Effects of response to 2014–2015 Ebola outbreak on deaths from malaria, HIV/ AIDS and tuberculosis, West Africa. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 22: 433–441; doi: 10.3201/eid2203.150977.Google Scholar
Pedersen, D. (2002). Political violence, ethnic conflict, and contemporary wars: Broad implications for health and wellbeing. Social Science and Medicine, 55: 175–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puvacic, Z. & Weinberg, J. (1994). Impact of war on infectious disease in Bosnia-Hercegovina. British Medical Journal, 309: 1207–1208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Redmond, A. D., Mardel, S., Taithe, B. et al. (2011). Qualitative and quantitative study of the surgical and rehabilitation response to the earthquake in Haiti, January 2010. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 26: 1–8.Google Scholar
Redmond, A. D., Tubb, P., Alcock, R. et al. (2016). The UK-Med Response to Ebola in Sierra Leone. Manchester: Manchester University.Google Scholar
Roy, N. (2006). The Asian tsunami: PAHO disaster guidelines in action in India. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 21: 310–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sterud, T., Ekeberg, Ø. & Hem, E. (2006). Health status in the ambulance services: A systematic review. BMC Health Services Research, 6: 82–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoddard, A., Harmer, A. & Czwarno, M. (2017). Aid worker security report. Behind the attacks: A look at the perpetrators of violence against aid workers. See https://aidworkersecurity.org/sites/default/files/AWSR2017.pdf.Google Scholar
Tempest, E. L, English National Study on Flooding and Health Study Group, Carter, B., Beck, C. R. & Rubin, G. J. (2017). Secondary stressors are associated with probable psychological morbidity after flooding: A cross-sectional analysis. European Journal of Public Health, 27: 1042–1047; https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckx1822017.Google Scholar
UNISDR (2015a). Annual report 2015. See https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/48588_unisdrannualreport2015evs.pdf.Google Scholar
UNISDR (2015b). Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015–2020. See www.unisdr.org/files/43291_sendaiframeworkfordrren.pdf.Google Scholar
UNISDR (2016). Open-ended Intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction. See www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/51748.Google Scholar
Van Bortel, T., Basnayake, A., Wurie, F., et al. (2016). Psychosocial effects of an Ebola outbreak at individual, community and international levels. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 94: 210–214.Google Scholar
Vetter, P., Kaiser, L., Schibler, M., Ciglenecki, I. & Bausch, D. G. (2016). Sequelae of Ebola virus disease: The emergency within the emergency. The Lancet Review, 16: e82–e91; https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(16)00077-3.Google Scholar
VSO and The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. (2015). Report. The Impact of Ebola on Maternal Health in Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone and Liverpool: Voluntary Service Overseas and The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine.Google Scholar
Vulic, D., Secerov-Zecevic, D., Tasic, I. & Burgic-Radmanovic, M. (2012). War trauma factors and cardiovascular risk. Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports, 6: 141–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, P. G. T., White, M. T., Griffin, J. T. et al. (2015). Malaria morbidity and mortality in Ebola-affected countries caused by decreased health-care capacity, and the potential effect of mitigation strategies: A modelling analysis. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 15: 825–832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, J. T., Gayer, M. & Connolly, M. A. (2007). Epidemics after natural disasters. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13: 1–5; doi: 10.3201/eid1301.060779.Google Scholar
WHO (2013). Classification and minimum standards for foreign medical teams in sudden onset disasters. See www.who.int/hac/global_health_cluster/fmt_guidelines_september2013.pdf.Google Scholar
WHO (2016). Ebola situation report – 16 March 2016. See http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-16-march-2016.Google Scholar
Williams, R. & Greenberg, N. (2014). Psychosocial and mental health care for the deployed staff of rescue, professional first response and aid agencies, NGOs and military organisations. In Ryan, J., Hopperus Buma, A., Beadling, C., Mozumder, A. & Nott, D. M., editors. Conflict and Catastrophe Medicine. New York, NY: Springer, pp. 395–432.Google Scholar
Williams, R. & Kemp, V. (2016). Psychosocial and mental health before, during and after emergencies, disasters and major incidents. In Sellwood, C. & Wapling, A., editors. Health Emergency Preparedness and Response. Wallingford: CABI, pp. 83–98.Google Scholar
Williams, R. & Kemp, V. (2018). Principles for designing and delivering psychosocial and mental healthcare. Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps; doi: 10.1136/jramc-2017-000880.Google Scholar
Williams, R., Bisson, J. & Kemp, V. (2014a). OP 94. Principles for Responding to the Psychosocial and Mental Health Needs of People Affected by Disasters or Major Incidents. London: The Royal College of Psychiatrists.Google Scholar
Williams, R., Kemp, V. J & Alexander, D. A. (2014b). The psychosocial and mental health of people who are affected by conflict, catastrophes, terrorism, adversity and displacement. In Ryan, J., Hopperus Buma, A., Beadling, C., Mozumder, A. & Nott, D. M., editors. Conflict and Catastrophe Medicine. New York, NY: Springer, pp. 805–849.Google Scholar
World Bank Group (2015). Update on the Economic Impact of the 2014–2015 Ebola Epidemic on Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.Google Scholar
Young, K. (2001). UNHCR and ICRC in the former Yugoslavia: Bosnia Hercegovina. International Review of the Red Cross, 83: 781–806.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
References
Alfadhli, K. & Drury, J. (2017). Psychosocial support among Syrian refugees in Jordan: An ethnographic exploration of the role of shared identity. Paper presented at 18th General Meeting of the EASP, Granada, Spain, July.Google Scholar
Alfadhli, K. & Drury, J. (2018a). A typology of secondary stressors among refugees of conflict in the Middle East: The case of Syrian refugees in Jordan. PLoS Currents Disasters, 10 May; doi: 10.1371/currents.dis.4bd3e6437bff47b33ddb9f73cb72f3d8.Google Scholar
Alfadhli, K. & Drury, J. (2018b). The role of shared social identity in mutual support among refugees of conflict: An ethnographic study of Syrian refugees in Jordan. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 28; doi: 10.1002/casp.2346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bendersky, J. (2007). ‘Panic’: The impact of Le Bon’s crowd psychology on US military thought. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 43: 257–283.Google Scholar
Chertkoff, J. M. & Kushigian, R. H. (1999). Don’t Panic: The Psychology of Emergency Egress and Ingress. Westport, CT: Praeger.Google Scholar
Cole, J., Walters, M. & Lynch, M. (2011). Part of the solution, not the problem: The crowd’s role in emergency response. Contemporary Social Science, 6: 361–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connell, R. (2001). Collective Behavior in the September 11, 2001 Evacuation of the World Trade Center. University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center. Preliminary paper #313.Google Scholar
Donald, I. & Canter, D. (1992). Intentionality and fatality during the King’s Cross underground fire. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22: 203–218.Google Scholar
Drury, J., Brown, R., González, R. & Miranda, D. (2016). Emergent social identity and observing social support predict social support provided by survivors in a disaster: Solidarity in the 2010 Chile earthquake. European Journal of Social Psychology, 46: 209–223.Google Scholar
Drury, J., Cocking, C. & Reicher, S. (2009a). Everyone for themselves? A comparative study of crowd solidarity among emergency survivors. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48: 487–506.Google Scholar
Drury, J., Cocking, C. & Reicher, S. (2009b). The nature of collective resilience: Survivor reactions to the 2005 London bombings. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 27: 66–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drury, J., Cocking, C., Reicher, S. et al. (2009c). Cooperation versus competition in a mass emergency evacuation: A new laboratory simulation and a new theoretical model. Behavior Research Methods, 41: 957–970.Google Scholar
Fritz, C. E. & Williams, H. B. (1957). The human being in disasters: A research perspective. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 309: 42–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, N. R. (1987). Panic at ‘The Who concert stampede’: An empirical assessment. Social Problems, 34: 362–373.Google Scholar
Johnson, N. R. (1988). Fire in a crowded theatre: A descriptive investigation of the emergence of panic. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 6: 7–26.Google Scholar
Lock, S., Rubin, G. J., Murray, V. et al. (2012). Secondary stressors and extreme events and disasters: A systematic review of primary research from 2010–2011. PLoS Currents Disasters, 29 October; doi: 10.1371/currents.dis.a9b76fed1b2dd5c5bfcfc13c87a2f24.Google Scholar
Mawson, A. (2007). Mass Panic and Social Attachment: The Dynamics of Human Behaviour. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Ntontis, E., Drury, J., Amlôt, R., Rubin, G. J & Williams, R. (2017). Emergent social identities in a flood: Implications for community psychosocial resilience. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 26 July: 1–12; https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quarantelli, E. L. (1960). Images of withdrawal behaviour in disasters: Some basic misconceptions. Social Problems, 8: 68–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reicher, S. D. (1984). The St. Pauls’ riot: An explanation of the limits of crowd action in terms of a social identity model. European Journal of Social Psychology, 14: 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shultz, J. M. (2014). Perspectives on disaster public health and disaster behavioral health integration. Disaster Health, 2: 69–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sime, J. D. (1983). Affiliative behavior during escape to building exits. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 3: 21–41.Google Scholar
Turner, J. C. (1981). The experimental social psychology of intergroup behaviour. In Turner, J. C. & Giles, H., editors, Intergroup Behaviour. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 66–101.Google Scholar
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D. & Wetherell, M. C. (1987). Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
UNHCR (2016). UNHCR Syria regional refugee response 2016. See https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria.Google Scholar
References
Bogner, D., Herlihy, J. & Brewin, C. R. (2007). Impact of sexual violence on disclosure during Home Office interviews. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 191: 75–81.Google Scholar
Cloitre, M., Courtois, C. A., Ford, J. D. et al. (2012). The ISTSS expert consensus treatment guidelines for Complex PTSD in adults. See www.istss.org/ISTSS_Main/media/Documents/ISTSS-Expert-Concesnsus-Guidelines-for-Complex-PTSD-Updated-060315.pdf.Google Scholar
Ehlers, A. & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345.Google Scholar
Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and Recovery: From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. New York, NY: Basic Books (reprinted in 2010).Google Scholar
ICD-11 (2018). ICD-11 for mortality and morbidity statistics. See https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%.Google Scholar
Masocha, S. & Simpson, M. K. (2012). Developing mental health social work for asylum seekers: A proposed model for practice. Journal of Social Work, 12: 423–443.Google Scholar
NICE (2005). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The management of PTSD in adults and children in primary and secondary care (CG26). See https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116/evidence/march-2005-full-guideline-pdf-6602623598.Google Scholar
NICE (2018). Post-traumatic stress disorder. NICE Guideline [NG116]. See https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116.Google Scholar
Robjant, K., Hassan, R. & Katona, C. (2009a). Mental health implications of detaining asylum seekers: A systematic review. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 194: 306–312.Google Scholar
Robjant, K., Robbins, I. & Senior, V. (2009b). Psychological distress amongst immigration detainees: A cross-sectional questionnaire study. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48: 275–286.Google Scholar
Schauer, M., Neuner, F. & Elbert, T. (2011). Narrative Exposure Therapy: A Short Term Treatment for Traumatic Stress Disorders, 2nd edition. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe Publishing.Google Scholar
Shapiro, F. (1989). Efficacy of the eye movement desensitisation procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2: 199–223.Google Scholar
UK Psychological Trauma Society (2017). Guideline for the treatment and planning of services for complex post-traumatic stress disorder in adults. See www.ukpts.co.uk/links_6_2920929231.pdf.Google Scholar
References
Allport, A. (2009). Demobbed: Coming Home After the Second World War. Newhaven, CT:Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center (2012). Deaths by suicide while on active duty, active and reserve components, US Armed Forces, 1998–2011. Medical Surveillance Monthly Report, 19: 7.Google Scholar
Bergman, B. P., Burdett, H. J. & Greenberg, N. (2014). Service life and beyond–institution or culture? The RUSI Journal, 159(5), 60–68.Google Scholar
Black, S. A., Gallaway, M. S., Bell, M. R. & Ritchie, E. C. (2011). Prevalence and risk factors associated with suicides of Army soldiers 2001–2009. Military Psychology, 23: 433.Google Scholar
Browne, T., Hull, L., Horn, O. et al. (2007). Explanations for the increase in mental health problems in UK reserve forces who have served in Iraq. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190: 484–489.Google Scholar
Buckman, J. E., Forbes, H. J., Clayton, T. et al. (2012). Early Service leavers: A study of the factors associated with premature separation from the UK Armed Forces and the mental health of those that leave early. The European Journal of Public Health, 23: 410–415.Google Scholar
Calvert, W. E. & Hutchinson, R. L. (1990). Vietnam veteran levels of combat: Related to later violence? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3: 103–113.Google Scholar
Fear, N. T., Iversen, A., Meltzer, H. et al. (2007). Patterns of drinking in the UK Armed Forces. Addiction, 102: 1749–1759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fear, N. T., Jones, M., Murphy, D. et al. (2010). What are the consequences of deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan on the mental health of the UK armed forces? A cohort study. The Lancet, 375: 1783–1797.Google Scholar
Fear, N. T., Ward, V., Harrison, K. et al. (2009). Suicide among male regular UK Armed Forces personnel, 1984–2007. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 66: 438–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frappell-Cooke, W., Gulina, M., Green, K., Hacker Hughes, J. & Greenberg, N. (2010). Does trauma risk management reduce psychological distress in deployed troops? Occupational Medicine, 60: 645–650.Google Scholar
Goodwin, L., Norton, S., Fear, N. T. et al. (2017). Trajectories of alcohol use in the UK military and associations with mental health. Addictive Behaviors, 75: 130–137; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.07.010.Google Scholar
Goodwin, L., Wessely, S., Hotopf, M. et al. (2015). Are common mental disorders more prevalent in the UK serving military compared to the general working population? Psychological Medicine, 45: 1881–1891; doi: 10.1017/S0033291714002980.Google Scholar
Gould, M., Adler, A., Zamorski, M. et al. (2010). Do stigma and other perceived barriers to mental health care differ across Armed Forces? Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 103: 148–156.Google Scholar
Greenberg, N., Langston, V. & Jones, N. (2008). Trauma risk management (TRiM) in the UK Armed Forces. Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, 154: 124–127.Google Scholar
Greenberg, N., Langston, V., Everitt, B. et al. (2010). A cluster randomized controlled trial to determine the efficacy of Trauma Risk Management (TRiM) in a military population. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23: 430–436.Google Scholar
Harvey, S. B., Hatch, S. L., Jones, M. et al. (2011). Coming home: Social functioning and the mental health of UK reservists on return from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. Annals of Epidemiology, 21: 666–672.Google Scholar
Harvey, S. B., Hatch, S. L., Jones, M. et al. (2012). The long-term consequences of military deployment: A 5-year cohort study of United Kingdom reservists deployed to Iraq in 2003. American Journal of Epidemiology, 176: 1177–1184.Google Scholar
Hines, L., Jawahar, K., Wessely, S. & Fear, N. T. (2013). Self-harm in the UK military. Occupational Medicine, 63: 354–357.Google Scholar
Hoge, C. W. & Castro, C. A. (2006). Post-traumatic stress disorder in UK and US forces deployed to Iraq. The Lancet, 368: 837.Google Scholar
Hoge, C. W., Auchterlonie, J. L. & Milliken, C. S. (2006). Mental health problems, use of mental health services, and attrition from military service after returning from deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295: 1023–1032.Google Scholar
Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C. et al. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. New England Journal of Medicine, 351: 13–22.Google Scholar
Hoge, C. W., McGurk, D., Thomas, J. L. et al. (2008). Mild traumatic brain injury in US soldiers returning from Iraq. New England Journal of Medicine, 358: 453–463.Google Scholar
Holmes, J., Fear, N. T., Harrison, K., Sharpley, J. & Wessely, S. (2013). Suicide among Falkland war veterans. British Medical Journal, 346; https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f3204.Google Scholar
Horn, O., Hull, L., Jones, M. et al. (2006). Is there an Iraq war syndrome? Comparison of the health of UK service personnel after the Gulf and Iraq wars. The Lancet, 367: 1742–1746.Google Scholar
Hotopf, M., Hull, L., Fear, N. T. et al. (2006). The health of UK military personnel who deployed to the 2003 Iraq war: A cohort study. The Lancet, 367: 1731–1741.Google Scholar
Iversen, A. C., Fear, N. T., Ehlers, A. et al. (2008). Risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder among UK Armed Forces personnel. Psychological Medicine, 38: 511–522.Google Scholar
Iversen, A. C., van Staden, L., Hughes, J. H. et al. (2009). The prevalence of common mental disorders and PTSD in the UK military: Using data from a clinical interview-based study. BMC Psychiatry, 9: 68.Google Scholar
Jenkins, R., Meltzer, H., Bebbington, P. et al. (2009). The British Mental Health Survey Programme: Achievements and Latest Findings: New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Jones, E., Fear, N. T. & Wessely, S. (2007). Shell shock and mild traumatic brain injury: a historical review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164: 1641–1645.Google Scholar
Jones, N., Burdett, H., Wessely, S. & Greenberg, N. (2010a). The subjective utility of early psychosocial interventions following combat deployment. Occupational Medicine, 61: 102–107.Google Scholar
Jones, N., Fear, N. T., Jones, M., Wessely, S. & Greenberg, N. (2010b). Long-term military work outcomes in soldiers who become mental health casualties when deployed on operations. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 73: 352–364.Google Scholar
Jones, N., Fear, N. T., Rona, R. et al. (2014). Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) among UK military personnel whilst deployed in Afghanistan in 2011. Brain Injury, 28: 896–899.Google Scholar
Jones, N., Jones, M. & Fear, N. T. (2013). Can mental health and readjustment be improved in UK military personnel by a brief period of structured postdeployment rest (third location decompression)? Occupational and Environmental Medicine, ;70: 439–445; doi: 10.1136/oemed-2012-101229.Google Scholar
Jones, N., Roberts, P. & Greenberg, N. (2003). Peer‐group risk assessment: a post‐traumatic management strategy for hierarchical organizations. Occupational Medicine, 53: 469–475.Google Scholar
Jones, N., Seddon, R., Fear, N. T. et al. (2012). Leadership, cohesion, morale, and the mental health of UK Armed Forces in Afghanistan. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 75: 49–59.Google Scholar
Kang, H. & Bullman, T. (2008). Risk of suicide among US veterans after returning from the Iraq or Afghanistan war zones. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264: 2241–2244.Google Scholar
Kang, H. K. & Hyams, K. C. (2005). Mental health care needs among recent war veterans. New England Journal of Medicine, 352: 1289.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O. & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62: 617–627.Google Scholar
Kwan, J., Jones, M., Somaini, G. et al. (2017). Post-deployment family violence among UK military personnel. Psychological Medicine, 1–11; doi: 10.1017/S0033291717003695.Google Scholar
MacManus, D., Dean, K., Al Bakir, M. et al. (2012). Violent behaviour in UK military personnel returning home after deployment. Psychological Medicine, 42: 1663–1673.Google Scholar
MacManus, D., Dean, K., Jones, M. et al. (2013). Violent offending by UK military personnel deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan: A data linkage cohort study. The Lancet, 381: 907–917.Google Scholar
Mulligan, K., Jones, N., Woodhead, C., et al. (2010). Mental health of UK military personnel while on deployment in Iraq. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 197: 405–410.Google Scholar
Okie, S. (2005). Traumatic brain injury in the war zone. New England Journal of Medicine, 352: 2043–2047. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp058102.Google Scholar
Osório, C., Jones, N., Fertout, M. & Greenberg, N. (2013a). Changes in stigma and barriers to care over time in UK armed forces deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq between 2008 and 2011. Military Medicine, 178: 846–853.Google Scholar
Osório, C., Jones, N., Fertout, M. & Greenberg, N. (2013b). Perceptions of stigma and barriers to care among UK military personnel deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 26: 539–557.Google Scholar
Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L. & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129: 52.Google Scholar
Pietrzak, R. H., Johnson, D. C., Goldstein, M. B., Malley, J. C. & Southwick, S. M. (2009). Posttraumatic stress disorder mediates the relationship between mild traumatic brain injury and health and psychosocial functioning in veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 197: 748–753.Google Scholar
Pinder, R. J., Iversen, A. C., Kapur, N., Wessely, S. & Fear, N. T. (2012). Self-harm and attempted suicide among UK Armed Forces personnel: Results of a cross-sectional survey. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 58: 433–439.Google Scholar
Richardson, L. K., Frueh, B. C. & Acierno, R. (2010). Prevalence estimates of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: Critical review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44: 4–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rona, R. J., Burdett, H., Bull, S. et al. (2016). Prevalence of PTSD and other mental disorders in UK service personnel by time since end of deployment: A meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 16: 333; doi: 10.1186/s12888-016-1038-8.Google Scholar
Rona, R. J., Fear, N. T., Hull, L. et al. (2007). Mental health consequences of overstretch in the UK armed forces: First phase of a cohort study. British Medical Journal, 335: 603.Google Scholar
Rona, R. J., Hooper, R., Jones, M. et al. (2006). Mental health screening in armed forces before the Iraq war and prevention of subsequent psychological morbidity: Follow-up study. British Medical Journal, 333: 991.Google Scholar
Rona, R. J., Jones, M., Fear, N. T. et al. (2012). Mild traumatic brain injury in UK military personnel returning from Afghanistan and Iraq: Cohort and cross-sectional analyses. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 27: 33–44.Google Scholar
Schneiderman, A. I., Braver, E. R. & Kang, H. K. (2008). Understanding sequelae of injury mechanisms and mild traumatic brain injury incurred during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan: Persistent postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167: 1446–1452.Google Scholar
Sundin, J., Forbes, H., Fear, N. T., Dandeker, C. & Wessely, S. (2011). The impact of the conflicts of Iraq and Afghanistan: A UK perspective. The International Review of Psychiatry, 23: 153–159.Google Scholar
Sundin, J., Jones, N., Greenberg, N. et al. (2010). Mental health among commando, airborne and other UK infantry personnel. Occupational Medicine, 60: 552–559.Google Scholar
Tanielian, T., Haycox, L. H., Schell, T. L. et al. (2008). Invisible wounds of war. Summary and recommendations for addressing psychological and cognitive injuries. See www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG720z1.html.Google Scholar
Thomas, J. L., Wilk, J. E., Riviere, L. A., et al. (2010). Prevalence of mental health problems and functional impairment among active component and National Guard soldiers 3 and 12 months following combat in Iraq. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67: 614–623.Google Scholar
Warden, D. L., Gordon, B., McAllister, T. W. et al. (2006). Guidelines for the pharmacologic treatment of neurobehavioral sequelae of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23: 1468–1501.Google Scholar
Wells, T. S., Miller, S. C., Adler, A. B. et al. (2011). Mental health impact of the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts: A review of US research, service provision, and programmatic responses. The International Review of Psychiatry, 23: 144–152.Google Scholar
Yager, T., Laufer, R. & Gallops, M. (1984). Some problems associated with war experience in men of the Vietnam generation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41: 327–333.Google Scholar
References
Armstrong, K. (2014). Fields of Blood: Religion and History of Violence. London: Bodley Head.Google Scholar
Bhui, K., Everitt, B. & Jones, E. (2014a). Might depression, psychosocial adversity, and limited social assets explain vulnerability to and resistance against violent radicalisation? PLoS One, 9: e105918; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105918.Google Scholar
Bhui, K., Khatib, Y., Viner, R. et al. (2008). Cultural identity, clothing and common mental disorder: A prospective school-based study of white British and Bangladeshi adolescents. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62: 435–441; doi: 10.1136/jech.2007.063149.Google Scholar
Bhui, K., Silva, M. J., Topciu, R. A. et al. (2016). Pathways to sympathies for violent protest and terrorism. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 209: 483–490; doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.116.185173.Google Scholar
Bhui, K., Warfa, N. & Jones, E. (2014b). Is violent radicalisation associated with poverty, migration, poor self-reported health and common mental disorders? PLoS One, 9: e90718; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090718.Google Scholar
Bhui, K. S., Hicks, M. H., Lashley, M. et al. (2012a). A public health approach to understanding and preventing violent radicalization. BMC Medicine, 10: 16; doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-10-16.Google Scholar
Bhui, K. S., Lenguerrand, E., Maynard, M. J. et al. (2012b). Does cultural integration explain a mental health advantage for adolescents? International Journal of Epidemiology, 41: 791–802; doi: 10.1093/ije/dys007.Google Scholar
Bond, L., Butler, H., Thomas, L. et al. (2007). Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 40: 357 e9-18; doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.013.Google Scholar
Bond, L., Patton, G., Glover, S. et al. (2004). The Gatehouse Project: Can a multilevel school intervention affect emotional wellbeing and health risk behaviours? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 58: 997–1003; doi: 10.1136/jech.2003.009449.Google Scholar
Christmann, K. (2012). Preventing Religious Radicalisation and Violent Extremism. London: Youth Justice Board.Google Scholar
Coid, J. W., Ullrich, S., Keers, R. et al. (2013). Gang membership, violence, and psychiatric morbidity. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 170: 985–993; doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12091188.Google Scholar
Cozens, P. (2007). Public health and the potential benefits of crime prevention through environmental design. New South Wales Public Health Bulletin, 18: 232–237.Google Scholar
Dugas, M. & Kruglanski, A. W. (2014). The quest for significance model of radicalization: Implications for the management of terrorist detainees. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 32: 423–439; doi: 10.1002/bsl.2122.Google Scholar
European Commission’s Expert Group on Violent Radicalisation (2008). Radicalisation Processes Leading to Acts of Terrorism. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
Gill, P., Horgan, J. & Deckert, P. (2014). Bombing alone: Tracing the motivations and antecedent behaviors of lone-actor terrorists. Journal of Forensic Science, 59: 425–35; doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.12312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helfstein, S. (2014). Social capital and terrorism. Defence and Peace Economics, 25: 363–380; doi: 10.1080/10242694.2013.763505.Google Scholar
Ibrahim, Y. (2017). Visuality and the ‘Jihadi-bride’: The re-fashioning of desire in the digital age. Social Identities, published online: 26 Sep; doi: 10.1080/13504630.2017.1381836.Google Scholar
McCauley, C. & Moskalenko, M. (2011). Friction: How Radicalization Happens to Them and Us. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Meeus, W., Branje, S. & Overbeek, G. J. (2004). Parents and partners in crime: A six-year longitudinal study on changes in supportive relationships and delinquency in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 45: 1288–1298; doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00312.x.Google Scholar
Murray, J, Menezes, A. M., Hickman, M. et al. (2015). Childhood behaviour problems predict crime and violence in late adolescence: Brazilian and British birth cohort studies. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50: 579–589; doi: 10.1007/s00127-014-0976-z.Google Scholar
O’Shaughnessy, N. & Baines, R. (2009). Selling terror: the symbolisation and positioning of Jihad. Marketing Theory, 9: 14.Google Scholar
Patton, G. C, Bond, L., Carlin, J. B. et al. (2006). Promoting social inclusion in schools: A group-randomized trial of effects on student health risk behavior and well-being. American Journal of Public Health, 96:1582–1587; doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.047399.Google Scholar
Rice, T. R. (2015). Violence among young men: The importance of a gender-specific developmental approach to adolescent male suicide and homicide. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 27: 177–181; doi: 10.1515/ijamh-2015-5008.Google Scholar
Velis, E., Shaw, G. & Whiteman, A. S. (2010). Victim’s profile analysis reveals homicide affinity for minorities and the youth. Journal of Injury and Violence Research, 2: 67–74; doi: 10.5249/jivr.v2i2.50.Google Scholar
Victoroff, J., Quota, S., Adelman, J. R. et al. (2010). Support for religio-political aggression among teenaged boys in Gaza. Part I: Psychological findings. Aggressive Behavior, 36: 219–231; doi: 10.1002/ab.20348.Google Scholar
Weine, S. M., Stone, A., Saeed, A. et al. (2017). Violent extremism, community-based violence prevention, and mental health professionals. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 205: 54–57; doi: 10.1097/NMD.0000000000000634.Google Scholar
Zagar, R. J, Busch, K. G., Grove, W. M. et al. (2009). Looking forward in records of young adults who were convicted of homicide or assault as youth: Risks for reoffending. Psychological Reports, 104: 129–154; doi: 10.2466/PR0.104.1.129-154.Google Scholar
References
Atran, S. (2016). The devoted actor: Unconditional commitment and intractable conflict across cultures. Current Anthropology, 57: 13.Google Scholar
Falk, A. (2004) Fratricide in the Holy Land: A Psychoanalytic View of the Arab–Israeli Conflict. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Kurth Cronin, A. (2011). How Terrorism Ends: Understanding the Decline and Demise of Terrorist Campaigns. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Richardson, L. (2007). What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist Threat. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
References
Carey, J. (1992). The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice Among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939. London: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar
Drury, J., Novelli, D. & Stott, C. (2013). Psychological disaster myths in the perception and management of mass emergencies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43: 2259–2270.Google Scholar
Harford, T. M. (2016). Messy: The Power of Disorder to Transform Our Lives. New York, NY: Riverhead Books.Google Scholar
Stott, C. & Reicher, S. (1998). Crowd action as intergroup process: Introducing the police perspective. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28: 509–529.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar