INTRODUCTION

Rome was a warrior state. During two centuries of imperial expansion following the second war against Carthage, that is in the last two centuries bc, Rome conquered the whole of the Mediterranean basin, and incorporated the conquered territory and its inhabitants, perhaps one fifth or one sixth of the world's then population, within the Roman state. These victories were bought at a price, paid by hundreds of thousands of men killed in war, and by captive slaves, and by soldiers who owed their victory to training and discipline. Decimation illustrates the point well. If an army unit was judged disobedient or cowardly in battle, one soldier in ten was selected by lot and cudgelled to death by his former comrades (Polybius 6.38). Decimation was not merely a terrifying myth, told to enforce compliance among fresh recruits. Decimation actually occurred, and often enough not to be particularly remarked on (e.g. Dio 41.35 and 48.42). Roman soldiers killed each other for their common good. Small wonder then that they executed military deserters without mercy; or that prisoners of war were sometimes forced to fight in gladiatorial contests, or were thrown to wild beasts for popular entertainment.

Public executions of prisoners helped inculcate valour and fear in the men, women and children left at home. Children learnt the lesson about what happened to soldiers who were defeated. These were the rituals which helped maintain an atmosphere of violence, even in peace.