THE MONGOL INVASION

The Mongol (or Tatar) invasion – whose main events were the first encounter between the Russians and Tatars on the river Kalka near the Sea of Azov in 1222 or 1223, the invasion of north-eastern Russia in 1237, and the sack of Kiev in 1240 – created a new political situation in eastern Europe: Russia fell under the rule of the successors of Genghis Khan's (c. 1155–1227) immense empire, becoming in fact its north-western province. It was governed by the ‘Golden Horde’ from its capital Saray on the lower Volga, which later became an independent state. This situation created a number of problems in Russian politics, as the country's interests had necessarily to be combined with the aspirations of the Mongol conquerors; Russia began to develop into a European state oriented toward Asia (a fact that was to determine her future for a long time to come), and suffered the first onslaughts from the west, which also influenced the course of her history.

The Russian administrative system was not altered by the conquerors, but the grand princes now had to obtain a yarlyk (charter) from the ‘Great Khan’ confirming them in office, obtainable by obligatory travel to Saray and Mongolia to pay humble obeisance and offer rich presents. The Mongol authorities took a census of Russia's population and imposed on all except the clergy a tribute to be collected by Tatar officials under the supervision of Mongol baskaks (agents). Sometimes, as in 1257–9, the local khans demanded Russian military detachments to reinforce their army.