The cross-linguistic survey continues in this chapter, in which we turn our attention to noun phrases whose definiteness or indefiniteness is due to something other than presence or absence of an article. The range of these “complex” definites (including proper nouns, personal pronouns, and noun phrases containing a demonstrative or possessive modifier) and indefinites was outlined in Chapter 1 in relation to English, and here we look at their forms, structures and behaviour more widely. Some of these expressions are central to an understanding of what definiteness is and how it works, and will play an important part in the discussion in subsequent chapters. The grammar of these noun phrase types is complex, and the discussion here will be limited to pointing out the most salient aspects, enough to enable us to consider how they fit into the general system of definite and indefinite noun phrases.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives are probably to be found in all languages, and they seem to be inherently definite – which is in part why definite articles almost always arise from them historically, presumably by some process of semantic weakening. Bear in mind, however, that in Chapter 1 I entertained the possibility that this assumption of inherent definiteness could be mistaken, an indefinite demonstrative existing in the form of such. This possibility will be examined below, and rejected; in this section I anticipate this finding, and continue to assume that demonstratives are universally definite in meaning. Note that if this is correct, it seems to mean that definiteness exists in some form in all languages.