Warfare cannot be fully understood apart from the historical and sociocultural context in which it occurs. In the Sokoto Caliphate, army organization and the actual conduct of war evolved within the framework of Sudanic military traditions. These traditions, partially Islamic in inspiration and practice, provided a composite model for the mujahidun to emulate. Indeed, the rapid transformation of the irregular Muslim armies into more permanently organized and highly integrated military establishments, with specialized cavalry and infantry forces, and the equally remarkable adoption of the Hausa patterns of fortified settlements and siege warfare, both testify to the pervasive influence of these military traditions. In particular, the Islamic content of these traditions was revived and further elaborated during the nineteenth century. The classical Islamic legal literature, so widely studied and applied in the caliphate, also afforded sage counsel for the conduct of military affairs. In this chapter we will first consider briefly the classical Muslim conception of war; then discuss the different types of wars fought in the nineteenth century; and finally, against the background of Sudanic military traditions modified by Islam, examine the actual conduct of war in the Sokoto Caliphate.

Islam and Warfare: The Jihad

The classical Muslim view of the world was formulated in terms of a fundamental doctrinal dualism: people resided either in dar al-Islam (the abode of Islam; Muslim territory) or in dar al-harb (the land of unbelief; enemy territory). It was the solemn duty of the caliph, as head of the Islamic state, to wage holy war (jihad) incessantly by all permissible and practicable means until dar al-Islam embraced the entire world.