The historical and structural forces that we have discussed in the preceding chapters mould the trajectories of economies and societies, but they act along with other factors, divides, and cleavages present in each society that have their own influence on the pattern of inequality. These different forces are not independent of the growth regime, but they reflect distinct and persistent social relationships that merit separate analysis. In this section, we look at four factors. The first is gender, and the inequalities with which it is associated. The second is regional inequality. The third relates to identity in the form of race, caste, community, or tribe. And the fourth is education. As we see below, these four dimensions of inequality cannot be treated in the same way. Gender inequality is by its nature pervasive, and the same is true of race and tribe and in India, caste, but in ways which take different forms at different times and in different places. Regional inequality may be intrinsic to the growth regime, which more often than not takes advantage of regional disparities; at the same time, it is intertwined with gender, racial, and educational inequalities, which vary across the territory. And education is about raising capabilities as much as about identity, but it also plays a role in the creation or perpetuation of labour market inequality.

This chapter looks at each of these factors, separated for the sake of clarity, in the context of the long term historical analysis presented in preceding chapters. It explores the contribution of each factor to labour market inequality, comparing the patterns and trends in the two countries since the 1980s. A final section brings these elements together in an exploratory multivariate analysis.

Gender Inequality and the Labour Market Insertion of Women

Section 4.3 reviewed overall labour market structures and outcomes, but labour market patterns are sharply differentiated by sex. Gender equality in the labour market depends on the nature of women's inclusion, on how women reconcile their productive and reproductive roles, and on the kind of employment they have access to. This is conditioned by economic, social, and cultural factors. This section looks into the differences and similarities in women's employment in Brazil and India. But, first, we briefly review the evolution of four factors that impinge on female labour force participation: fertility rate, place of residence, educational status, and care regime.