The previous chapters are an attempt to portray the nature of transformative innovation. The premise we offer is not one of particular events in specific societies or regions. Rather, we suggest that focusing on specific events, which are particular to one period or region, could miss the bigger— much richer— picture. We offer a perspective that is universal in nature: Whereas each transformative innovation was developed in a different period, region and social and economic context, they all share basic traits. Namely, they all propelled the societies that developed and embraced them to meaningful dominance, and they all relied on varying degrees of openness, competition and empowerment.

This survey of world history over the last 2,000 plus years reveals important patterns that provide lessons for modern leaders and policy makers.

1. Irresistibility of Innovation. No single nation can stop the path of innovation. Any single nation may decide not to embrace innovation and new technologies. However, the world is full of diverse countries, cultures and peoples. Those not at the pinnacle of power and wealth may have a strong desire to get there. This aspiration may make nations eager to embrace or develop innovations that can help their advance. Thus, even if a dominant nation ignores or suppresses innovation, another nation or region will out- innovate it. One can see this pattern most easily in the case of gunpowder weapons and water navigation. Supremacy in gunpowder weapons shifted between the Jin, Song, Mongol and Ming dynasties in China, then moved to the Ottomans in Turkey and to a number of nations in Europe (see Chapter 4). Each nation that innovated gained an edge in competitive struggles. But because the technology had low entry barriers, other nations were quick to imitate and further innovate. The Japanese samurai and Egyptian Mamluks, who tried to stop gunpowder weapons, failed dramatically. A similar pattern occurred with water navigation. Here, supremacy moved from China, to Venice, to Portugal, to the Netherlands and to England (see Chapters 5 to 8).