The modernization of societies depends on their ability to create new institutions, exploit advanced technologies, master their environment, and adapt their patterns of behaviour for common goals. Conventional wisdom has it that education, by improving the capabilities of individuals and institutions, plays a key role in the modernization process. Education serves as a catalyst for economic, social, and political development, all of which contribute to overall national development. Nonetheless, precisely how education, as a causal agent, triggers economic growth continues to be a matter for debate among researchers. On the one hand, numerous studies suggest that education is strongly linked to economic productivity, technological advancement, higher individual income, lowering of poverty levels, gender equality, greater awareness of citizenry responsibilities, and the general elevation of quality of life. Education also breaks cultural barriers by connecting societies to the rest of the world through the common languages of mathematics, science and technology, and ideologies.

On the other hand, there are counter-studies that suggest that education may have negative consequences. Uneven access to education, for example, leads to an education system that may perpetuate and legitimize divisions based on ethnicity, gender, or economic status. If a certain ethnic group or class is found to be over-represented in higher education at the expense of others, it may lead to a polarization of society, with ethnically heterogeneous societies being the most vulnerable. Another popular criticism of education is its heavy reliance on Western information, technologies, pedagogy, and philosophies. This is especially evident in higher education such as colleges or universities, and if left unchecked, will make younger generations more susceptible to Western or global culture and may be responsible for weakening their cultural roots and traditional values. One economic criticism is that poverty-stricken families may begin by borrowing heavily to send their children to universities in the hope of giving them the means to a better life. However, when job scarcity becomes chronic, these families sink deeper into debt, thus creating a downward spiral.