Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ttngx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-11T00:42:38.351Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Socioeconomic disadvantage and parental mood/affective problems links negative parenting and executive dysfunction in children born very preterm

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 November 2021

Rachel E. Lean Open the ORCID record for Rachel E. Lean [Opens in a new window] ,
Emily D. Gerstein ,
Tara A. Smyser ,
Christopher D. Smyser  and
Cynthia E. Rogers
Rachel E. Lean*
Affiliation:
Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
Emily D. Gerstein
Affiliation:
Psychological Sciences, University Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, USA
Tara A. Smyser
Affiliation:
Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
Christopher D. Smyser
Affiliation:
Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
Cynthia E. Rogers
Affiliation:
Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, USA
*
Corresponding author: Rachel E. Lean, email: rachel.lean@wustl.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Poverty increases the risk of poorer executive function (EF) in children born full-term (FT). Stressors associated with poverty, including variability in parenting behavior, may explain links between poverty and poorer EF, but this remains unclear for children born very preterm (VPT). We examine socioeconomic and parental psychosocial adversity on parenting behavior, and whether these factors independently or jointly influence EF in children born VPT. At age five years, 154 children (VPT = 88, FT = 66) completed parent-child interaction and EF tasks. Parental sensitivity, intrusiveness, cognitive stimulation, and positive and negative regard were coded with the Parent-Child Interaction Rating Scale. Socioeconomic adversity spanned maternal demographic stressors, Income-to-Needs ratio, and Area Deprivation Index. Parents completed measures of depression, anxiety, inattention/hyperactivity, parenting stress, and social-communication interaction (SCI) problems. Parental SCI problems were associated with parenting behavior in parents of children born VPT, whereas socioeconomic adversity was significant in parents of FT children. Negative parenting behaviors, but not positive parenting behaviors, were related to child EF. This association was explained by parental depression/anxiety symptoms and socioeconomic adversity. Results persisted after adjustment for parent and child IQ. Findings may inform research on dyadic interventions that embed treatment for parental mood/affective symptoms and SCI problems to improve childhood EF.

Keywords

executive functionparentingpovertyprematurity
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 35 , Issue 3 , August 2023 , pp. 1092 - 1107
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S. H., Duivenvoorden, H. J., Weisglas-Kuperus, N., Van Goudoever, J. B., & Oosterlaan, J. (2012). The profile of executive function in very preterm children at 4 to 12 years. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 54(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04150.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abidin, R. R. (1990). Parenting stress index (PSI). Charlottesville, VA: Pediatric Psychology Stress.Google Scholar
Adler, L. A., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Michelson, D., Reimherr, F. W., Glatt, S. J., Marchant, B. K., & Biederman, J. (2008). The reliability and validity of self- and investigator ratings of ADHD in adults. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11(6), 711–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054707308503 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, P. J., & Doyle, L. W. (2004). Executive functioning in school-aged children who were born very preterm or with extremely low birth weight in the 1990s. Pediatrics, 114(1), 50–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnau, R. C., Meagher, M. W., Norris, M. P., & Bramson, R. (2001). Psychometric evaluation of the Beck Depression Inventory-II with primary care medical patients. Health Psychology, 20(2), 112–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.20.2.112 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, L. L. B., Harp, D., & Jung, W. S. (2002). Reliability generalization of scores on the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62(4), 603–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164402062004005 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Crnic, K., & Gable, S. (1995). The determinants of coparenting in families with toddler boys: Spousal differences and daily hassles. Child Development, 66(3), 629–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, N. J. (2019). Birth practices: Maternal-neonate separation as a source of toxic stress. Birth Defects Research, 111(15), 1087–1109. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdr2.1530 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernard, K., Nissim, G., Vaccaro, S., Harris, J. L., & Lindhiem, O. (2018). Association between maternal depression and maternal sensitivity from birth to 12 months: A meta-analysis. Attachment & Human Development, 20(6), 578–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2018.1430839 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning. Child Development, 81(1), 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01397.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bilgin, A., & Wolke, D. (2015). Maternal sensitivity in parenting preterm children: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 136(1), e177–e193. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-3570 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Cultural approaches to parenting. Parenting, Science and Practice, 12(2–3), 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.683359 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brito, N., Ryan, R., & Barr, R. (2015). Methods for assessing parent-child interactions in large-scale studies. In Saracho, O. (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in early childhood education: Review of research methodologies (Vol. 2, pp. 147–189). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing Inc.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Evans, G. W. (2000). Developmental science in the 21st century: Emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs and empirical findings. Social Development, 9(1), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00114 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brumberg, H. L., & Shah, S. I. (2015). Born early and born poor: An eco-bio-developmental model for poverty and preterm birth. Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, 8(3), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.3233/NPM-15814098 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brydges, C. R., Reid, C. L., Fox, A. M., & Anderson, M. (2012). A unitary executive function predicts intelligence in children. Intelligence, 40(5), 458–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2012.05.006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camerota, M., Willoughby, M. T., Cox, M., Greenberg, M. T., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2015). Executive function in low birth weight preschoolers: The moderating effect of parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(8), 1551–1562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0032-9 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomyn, A., Reichert, A., Carroll, L., Qureshi, M., & Toye, J. (2015). Low socioeconomic status and very preterm birth: A “Double Jeopardy” in child language development. Paediatrics & Child Health, 20(5), e54–e55. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/20.5.e54a CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chronis-Tuscano, A., O’Brien, K. A., Johnston, C., Jones, H. A., Clarke, T. L., Raggi, V. L., … Seymour, K. E. (2011). The relation between maternal ADHD symptoms and improvement in child behavior following brief behavioral parent training is mediated by change in negative parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(7), 1047–1057. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9518-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chronis-Tuscano, A., Raggi, V. L., Clarke, T. L., Rooney, M. E., Diaz, Y., & Pian, J. (2008). Associations between maternal attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(8), 1237–1250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9246-4 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ciciolla, L., Crnic, K. A., & West, S. G. (2013). Determinants of change in maternal sensitivity: Contributions of context, temperament, and developmental risk. Parenting, Science and Practice, 13(3), 178–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2013.756354 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, C. A. C., & Woodward, L. J. (2015). Relation of perinatal risk and early parenting to executive control at the transition to school. Developmental Science, 18(4), 525–542. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12232 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, C. A. C., Woodward, L. J., Horwood, L. J., & Moor, S. (2008). Development of emotional and behavioral regulation in children born extremely preterm and very preterm: Biological and social influences. Child Development, 79(5), 1444–1462. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01198.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coelho, C. V. G., Ribeiro, F., & Lopes, A. F. (2019). Assessment of the executive functions of moderate preterm children in preschool age. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, Advance Online Publication, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2019.1699095 Google Scholar
Conners, C. K. (2000). Conners’ rating scales-revised technical manual. New York, USA: Multi-Health Systems Inc.Google Scholar
Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2012). Social responsiveness scale, second edition (SRS-2). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Crandall, A., Deater-Deckard, K., & Riley, A. W. (2015). Maternal emotion and cognitive control capacities and parenting: A conceptual framework. Developmental Review, 36, 105–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.01.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K. (2014). Family matters: Intergenerational and interpersonal processes of executive function and attentive behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(3), 230–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414531597 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Distefano, R., Galinsky, E., McClelland, M. M., Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2018). Autonomy-supportive parenting and associations with child and parent executive function. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 58, 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.04.007 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dreyer, B. P., Mendelsohn, A. L., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (1996). Assessing the child’s cognitive home environment through parental report; Reliability and validity. Early Development and Parenting, 5(4), 271–287. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0917(199612)5:4<271::AID-EDP138>3.0.CO;2-D 3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duricki, D., Soleman, S., & Moon, L. (2016). Analysis of longitudinal data from animals where some data are missing in SPSS. Nature Protocols, 11(6), 1112–1129. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2016.048 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elliott, C. D. (2007). Differential ability scales (second edition). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Bianchi, J., Griskevicius, V., & Frankenhuis, W. E. (2017). Beyond risk and protective factors: An adaptation-based approach to resilience. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(4), 561–587. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617693054 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espy, K. A., Bull, R., Martin, J., & Stroup, W. (2006). Measuring the development of executive control with the shape school. Psychological Assessment, 18(4), 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.4.373 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, G. W., Li, D., & Whipple, S. S. (2013). Cumulative risk and child development. Psychological Bulletin, 139(6), 1342–1396. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031808 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerstein, E. D., Njoroge, W., Paul, R. A., Smyser, C. D., & Rogers, C. E. (2019). Maternal depression and stress in the NICU: Associations with mother-child interactions at age 5 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(3), 350–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geyer, S., Hemström, O., Peter, R., & Vågerö, D. (2006). Education, income, and occupational class cannot be used interchangeably in social epidemiology. Empirical evidence against a common practice. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(9), 804–810. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2005.041319 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, C. M., Berkule, S. B., Dreyer, B. P., Fierman, A. H., Huberman, H. S., Klass, P. E., Tomopoulos, S., Yin, H. S., Morrow, L. M., & Mendelsohn, A. L. (2009). Maternal literacy and associations between education and the cognitive home environment in low-income families. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 163(9), 832–837. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.136 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gueron-Sela, N., Camerota, M., Willoughby, M. T., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M. J., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2018). Maternal depressive symptoms, mother-child interactions, and children’s executive function. Developmental Psychology, 54(1), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000389 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hack, M., Taylor, H. G., Klein, N., Eiben, R., Schatschneider, C., & Mercuri-Minich, N. (1994). School-age outcomes in children with birth weights under 750 g. New England Journal of Medicine, 331(12), 753–759. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199409223311201 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hackman, D. A., Betancourt, L. M., Gallop, R., Romer, D., Brodsky, N. L., Hurt, H., & Farah, M. J. (2014). Mapping the trajectory of socioeconomic disparity in working memory: Parental and neighborhood factors. Child Development, 85(4), 1433–1445. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12242 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hackman, D. A., Gallop, R., Evans, G. W., & Farah, M. J. (2015). Socioeconomic status and executive function: Developmental trajectories and mediation. Developmental Science, 18(5), 686–702. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12246 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haft, S. L., & Hoeft, F. (2017). Poverty’s impact on children’s executive functions: Global considerations. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2017(158), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20220 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harold, G. T., Rice, F., Hay, D. F., Boivin, J., van den Bree, M., & Thapar, A. (2011). Familial transmission of depression and antisocial behavior symptoms: Disentangling the contribution of inherited and environmental factors and testing the mediating role of parenting. Psychological Medicine, 41(6), 1175–1185. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710001753 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helm, A. F., McCormick, S. A., Deater-Deckard, K., Smith, C. L., Calkins, S. D., & Bell, M. A. (2020). Parenting and children’s executive function stability across the transition to school. Infant and Child Development, 29(1), e2171. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2171 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirokawa, K., Kimura, T., Ikehara, S., Honjo, K., Sato, T., Ueda, K., & Iso, H. (2019). Associations between Broader Autism Phenotype (BAP) and maternal attachment are moderated by maternal postpartum depression when infants are one month old. Journal of Affective Disorders, 243, 485–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.09.060 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holochwost, S. J., Gariépy, J.-L., Propper, C. B., Gardner-Neblett, N., Volpe, V., Neblett, E., & Mills-Koonce, W. R. (2016). Sociodemographic risk, parenting, and executive functions in early childhood: The role of ethnicity. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36(3), 537–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.02.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, C., Roman, G., Hart, M. J., & Ensor, R. (2013). Does maternal depression predict young children’s executive function? A 4-year longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12014 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hwa-Froelich, D. A., Loveland Cook, C. A., & Flick, L. H. (2008). Maternal sensitivity and communication styles: Mothers with depression. Journal of Early Intervention, 31(1), 44–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815108324754 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaekel, J., Wolke, D., & Chernova, J. (2012). Mother and child behaviour in very preterm and term dyads at 6 and 8 years. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 54(8), 716–723. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04323.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, C., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2018). Families and ADHD. In Barkley, R. A. (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, a handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed., pp. 191–209). London, United Kingdom: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kabacoff, R. I., Segal, D. L., Hersen, M., & Van Hasselt, V. B. (1997). Psychometric properties and diagnostic utility of the Beck Anxiety Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory with older adult psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11(1), 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(96)00033-3 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kidokoro, H., Neil, J. J., & Inder, T. E. (2013). New MR imaging assessment tool to define brain abnormalities in very preterm infants at term. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 34(11), 2208–2214. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A3521 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiernan, K. E., & Huerta, M. C. (2008). Economic deprivation, maternal depression, parenting and children’s cognitive and emotional development in early childhood. The British Journal of Sociology, 59(4), 783–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-4446.2008.00219.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kind, A. J. H., & Buckingham, W. R. (2018). Making neighborhood-disadvantage metrics accessible—The Neighborhood Atlas. The New England Journal of Medicine, 378(26), 2456–2458. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1802313 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiss, M., Fechete, G., Pop, M., & Susa, G. (2014). Early childhood self-regulation: Parental and familial environmental influences. Cognition, Brain, Behavior, 18(1), 55–85.Google Scholar
Kovan, N. M., Chung, A. L., & Sroufe, L. A. (2009). The intergenerational continuity of observed early parenting: A prospective, longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1205–1213. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016542 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kroll, J., Karolis, V., Brittain, P. J., Tseng, C.-E. J., Froudist-Walsh, S., Murray, R. M., & Nosarti, C. (2017). Real-life impact of executive function impairments in adults who were born very preterm. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 23(5), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617717000169 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Last, B. S., Lawson, G. M., Breiner, K., Steinberg, L., & Farah, M. J. (2018). Childhood socioeconomic status and executive function in childhood and beyond. PLoS ONE, 13(8), e0202964. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202964 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawson, G. M., Hook, C. J., & Farah, M. J. (2018). A meta-analysis of the relationship between socioeconomic status and executive function performance among children. Developmental Science, 21(2), e12529. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12529 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawson, G. M., Hook, C. J., Hackman, D. A., & Farah, M. J. (2016). Socioeconomic status and the development of executive function: Behavioral and neuroscience approaches. In Griffin, J. A., Freund, L. S., & McCardle, P. (Eds.), Executive function in preschool children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research (pp. 259–278). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lean, R. E., Lessov-Shlaggar, C. N., Gerstein, E. D., Smyser, T. A., Paul, R. A., Smyser, C. D., & Rogers, C. E. (2020). Maternal and family factors differentiate profiles of psychiatric impairments in very preterm children at age 5-years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(2), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13116 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lean, R. E., Paul, R. A., Smyser, C. D., & Rogers, C. E. (2018). Maternal intelligence quotient (IQ) predicts IQ and language in very preterm children at age 5 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(2), 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12810 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lean, R. E., Paul, R. A., Smyser, T. A., Smyser, C. D., & Rogers, C. E. (2018). Social adversity and cognitive, language, and motor development of very preterm children from 2 to 5 years of age. The Journal of Pediatrics, 203, 177–184.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.07.110 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lefmann, T., Combs-Orme, T., & Orme, J. G. (2017). Examining the inter-correlated effects of low income, life stress, and race on birth outcomes: A representative state study. Social Work in Health Care, 56(6), 450–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/00981389.2017.1316811 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenze, S. N., Rodgers, J., & Luby, J. (2015). A pilot, exploratory report on dyadic interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal depression. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 18(3), 485–491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-015-0503-6 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leve, L. D., DeGarmo, D. S., Bridgett, D. J., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Harold, G. T., Natsuaki, M. N., & Reiss, D. (2013). Using an adoption design to separate genetic, prenatal, and temperament influences on toddler executive function. Developmental Psychology, 49(6), 1045–1057. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029390 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00100-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lowe, J., Erickson, S. J., MacLean, P., Duvall, S. W., Ohls, R. K., & Duncan, A. F. (2014). Associations between maternal scaffolding and executive functioning in 3 and 4 year olds born very low birth weight and normal birth weight. Early Human Development, 90(10), 587–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.07.009 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mangin, K. S., Horwood, L. J., & Woodward, L. J. (2016). Cognitive development trajectories of very preterm and typically developing children. Child Development, 88(1), 282–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12585 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manley, B. J., Roberts, R. S., Doyle, L. W., Schmidt, B., Anderson, P. J., Barrington, K. J., Bohm, B., Golan, A., van Wassenaer-Leemhuis, A. G., Davis, P. G., & the Caffine for Apnea of Prematurity (CAP) Investigators. (2015). Social variables predict gains in cognitive scores across the preschool years in children with birth weights 500 to 1250 grams. The Journal of Pediatrics, 166(4), 870–876.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.12.016 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matte-Gagné, C., Bernier, A., & Lalonde, G. (2015). Stability in maternal autonomy support and child executive functioning. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(9), 2610–2619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0063-9 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazursky-Horowitz, H., Felton, J. W., MacPherson, L., Ehrlich, K. B., Cassidy, J., Lejuez, C. W., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2015). Maternal emotion regulation mediates the association between adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms and parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(1), 121–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9894-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKenna, R., Rushe, T., & Woodcock, K. A. (2017). Informing the structure of executive function in children: A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging data. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11(154). Published Online. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2017.00154 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Breslau, J., Green, J. G., Lakoma, M. D., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2011). Childhood socio-economic status and the onset, persistence, and severity of DSM-IV mental disorders in a US national sample. Social Science & Medicine, 73(7), 1088–1096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.06.011 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molfese, V. J., Modglin, A., & Molfese, D. L. (2003). The role of environment in the development of reading skills: A longitudinal study of preschool and school-age measures. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194030360010701 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadeau, L., Tessier, R., Boivin, M., Lefebvre, F., & Robaey, P. (2003). Extremely premature and very low birthweight infants: A double hazard population? Social Development, 12(2), 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00231 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neuhauser, A. (2016). Predictors of maternal sensitivity in at-risk families. Early Child Development and Care, 188(2), 126–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1207065 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1999). Child care and mother-child interaction in the first 3 years of life. Developmental Psychology, 35(6), 1399–1413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nörby, U., Winbladh, B., & Källén, K. (2017). Perinatal outcomes after treatment with ADHD medication during pregnancy. Pediatrics, 140(6). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-0747 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nuru-Jeter, A. M., Michaels, E. K., Thomas, M. D., Reeves, A. N., Thorpe, R. J., & LaVeist, T. A. (2018). Relative roles of race versus socioeconomic position in studies of health inequalities: A matter of interpretation. Annual Review of Public Health, 39, 169–188. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-014230 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Meagher, S., Kemp, N., Norris, K., Anderson, P., & Skilbeck, C. (2017). Risk factors for executive function difficulties in preschool and early school-age preterm children. Acta Paediatrica, 106(9), 1468–1473. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13915 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orelien, J. G., & Edwards, L. J. (2008). Fixed-effect variable selection in linear mixed models using R2 statistics. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 52(4), 1896–1907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2007.06.006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, J. L., Hudec, K. L., & Johnston, C. (2017). Parental ADHD symptoms and parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 56, 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.05.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parr, J. R., Gray, L., Wigham, S., McConachie, H., & Couteur, A. L. (2015). Measuring the relationship between the parental Broader Autism Phenotype, parent–child interaction, and children’s progress following parent mediated intervention. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 20, 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2015.07.006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez-Pereira, M., & Cruz, R. (2017). A longitudinal study of vocabulary size and composition in low risk preterm children. First Language, 38(1), 72–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723717730484 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peugh, J., & Enders, C. (2004). Missing data in educational research: A review of reporting practices and suggestions for improvement. Review of Educational Research, 74(4), 525–556. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074004525 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poehlmann, J., Schwichtenberg, A. J. M., Shlafer, R., Hahn, E., Bianchi, J.-P., & Warner, R. (2011). Emerging self-regulation in toddlers born preterm or low birth weight: Differential susceptibility to parenting? Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000726 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potijk, M. R., Kerstjens, J. M., Bos, A. F., Reijneveld, S. A., & de Winter, A. F. (2013). Developmental delay in moderately preterm-born children with low socioeconomic status: Risks multiply. The Journal of Pediatrics, 163(5), 1289–1295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.07.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pritchard, V. E., & Woodward, L. J. (2011). Preschool executive control on the Shape School task: Measurement considerations and utility. Psychological Assessment, 23(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021095 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rea, H. M., Factor, R. S., Swain, D. M., & Scarpa, A. (2019). The Association of the Broader Autism Phenotype with emotion-related behaviors in mothers of children with and without Autism Spectrum traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(3), 950–959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3785-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reitman, D., Currier, R. O., & Stickle, T. R. (2002). A critical evaluation of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in a Head start population. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 31(3), 384–392. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3103_10 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ribner, A. D., Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2017). Executive function buffers the association between early math and later academic skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(869). Published Online. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00869 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rochette, É., & Bernier, A. (2016). Parenting and preschoolers’ executive functioning: A case of differential susceptibility? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 40(2), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414557370 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, C., Smyser, T., Smyser, C. D., Shimony, J., Inder, T. E., & Neil, J. J. (2015). Regional white matter development in very preterm infants: Perinatal predictors and early developmental outcomes. Pediatric Research, 79(1–1), 87–95. https://doi.org/10.1038/pr.2015.172 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarsour, K., Sheridan, M., Jutte, D., Nuru-Jeter, A., Hinshaw, S., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Family socioeconomic status and child executive functions: The roles of language, home environment, and single parenthood. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(01), 120–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710001335 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siller, M., Hutman, T., & Sigman, M. (2013). A parent-mediated intervention to increase responsive parental behaviors and child communication in children with ASD: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(3), 540–555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1584-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smyser, C. D., Inder, T. E., Shimony, J. S., Hill, J. E., Degnan, A. J., Snyder, A. Z., & Neil, J. J. (2010). Longitudinal analysis of neural network development in preterm infants. Cerebral Cortex, 20(12), 2852–2862. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhq035 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smyser, C. D., Snyder, A. Z., Shimony, J. S., Mitra, A., Inder, T. E., & Neil, J. J. (2016). Resting-state network complexity and magnitude are reduced in prematurely born infants. Cerebral Cortex, 26(1), 322–333. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhu251 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, M.-K., Lin, F.-C., Ward, S. E., & Fine, J. P. (2013). Composite variables. Nursing Research, 62(1), 45–49. https://doi.org/10.1097/NNR.0b013e3182741948 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sosic-Vasic, Z., Kröner, J., Schneider, S., Vasic, N., Spitzer, M., & Streb, J. (2017). The association between parenting behavior and executive functioning in children and young adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(472), eCollection. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00472 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
South, M., Carr, A. W., Stephenson, K. G., Maisel, M. E., & Cox, J. C. (2017). Symptom overlap on the SRS-2 adult self-report between adults with ASD and adults with high anxiety. Autism Research, 10(7), 1215–1220. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1764 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Stack, D. M., Matte-Gagné, C., & Dickson, D. J. (2019). Persistence of effects of VLBW/PT birth status and maternal Emotional Availability (EA) on child EA trajectories. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2715), eCollection. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02715 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Subramanian, S. V., Acevedo-Garcia, D., & Osypuk, T. L. (2005). Racial residential segregation and geographic heterogeneity in black/white disparity in poor self-rated health in the US: A multilevel statistical analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 60(8), 1667–1679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.08.040 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sundelin, H. E., Stephansson, O., Hultman, C. M., & Ludvigsson, J. F. (2018). Pregnancy outcomes in women with Autism: A nationwide population-based cohort study. Clinical Epidemiology, 10, 1817–1826. https://doi.org/10.2147/CLEP.S176910 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suttora, C., & Salerni, N. (2011). Maternal speech to preterm infants during the first 2 years of life: Stability and change. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 46(4), 464–472. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00007.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ta, V. P., Gesselman, A. N., Perry, B. L., Fisher, H. E., & Garcia, J. R. (2017). Stress of singlehood: Marital Status, domain-specific stress, and anxiety in a national U.S. sample. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 36(6), 461–485. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2017.36.6.461 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Briggs, R. D., McClowry, S. G., & Snow, D. L. (2008). Challenges to the study of African American parenting: Conceptualization, sampling, research approaches, measurement, and design. Parenting, 8(4), 319–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190802612599 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, H. G., & Clark, C. A. C. (2016). Executive function in children born preterm: Risk factors and implications for outcome. Seminars in Perinatology, 40(8), 520–529. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2016.09.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thissen, A. J. A. M., Rommelse, N. N. J., Altink, M. E., Oosterlaan, J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2014). Parent-of-origin effects in ADHD: Distinct Influences of paternal and maternal ADHD on neuropsychological functioning in offspring. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18(6), 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054712443159 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thissen, A. J. A. M., Rommelse, N. N. J., Hoekstra, P. J., Hartman, C., Heslenfeld, D., Luman, M., van Lieshout, M., Franke, B., Oosterlaan, J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2014). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive functioning in affected and unaffected adolescents and their parents: Challenging the endophenotype construct. Psychological Medicine, 44(4), 881–892. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713001153 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treyvaud, K. (2014). Parent and family outcomes following very preterm or very low birth weight birth: A review. Seminars in Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, 19(2), 131–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.siny.2013.10.008 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treyvaud, K., Doyle, L. W., Lee, K. J., Ure, A., Inder, T. E., Hunt, R. W., & Anderson, P. J. (2016). Parenting behavior at 2 years predicts school-age performance at 7 years in very preterm children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 57(7), 814–821. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12489 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treyvaud, K., Thompson, D. K., Kelly, C. E., Loh, W. Y., Inder, T. E., Cheong, J. L. Y., Doyle, L. W., & Anderson, P. J. (2020). Early parenting is associated with the developing brains of children born very preterm. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 35(5), 885–903. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2020.1811895 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United States Census Bureau. (2010). QuickFacts St. Louis City, Missouri (County). Retrieved May 30, 2018, from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/stlouiscitymissouricounty/PST045216 Google Scholar
United States Census Bureau. (2015). Poverty thresholds. Retrieved December 6, 2016, from Poverty website: https://www.census.gov/topics/income-poverty/poverty.html Google Scholar
van de Weijer-Bergsma, E., Wijnroks, L., van Haastert, I. C., Boom, J., & Jongmans, M. J. (2016). Does the development of executive functioning in infants born preterm benefit from maternal directiveness? Early Human Development, 103, 155–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2016.09.012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Houdt, C. A., Oosterlaan, J., van Wassenaer-Leemhuis, A.G., van Kaam, A. H. & Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S. H. (2019). Executive function deficits in children born preterm or at low birthweight: A meta-analysis. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 61(9), 1015–1024. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.14213 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2013). V. Cumulative risk and its relation to parenting and child outcomes at 36 months. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(5), 66–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12051 Google Scholar
Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., Willoughby, M., Burchinal, M., Garrett-Peters, P., Mills-Koonce, R., … Bauer, P. J. (2013). The family life project: An epidemiological and developmental study of young children living in poor rural communities. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(5), 1–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12046 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2001). Wechsler test of adult reading. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2004). WPPSI-III: Administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
White, L. K., Moore, T. M., Calkins, M. E., Wolf, D. H., Satterthwaite, T. D., Leibenluft, E., Pine, D. S., Gur, R. C., & Gur, R. E. (2017). An evaluation of the specificity of executive function impairment in developmental psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(11), 975–982.e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.08.016 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiteside-Mansell, L., Ayoub, C., McKelvey, L., Faldowski, R. A., Hart, A., & Shears, J. (2007). Parenting stress of low-income parents of toddlers and preschoolers: Psychometric properties of a short form of the Parenting Stress Index. Parenting: Science and Practice, 7(1), 27–56. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0701_2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., Dennison, M., Vijayakumar, N., Schwartz, O., Yap, M. B. H., Sheeber, L., & Allen, N. B. (2014). Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 8, 7–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2013.10.006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, H. S., Huertas-Ceballos, A., Cowan, F. M., & Modi, N. (2014). Evaluation of early childhood social-communication difficulties in children born preterm using the Quantitative Checklist for Autism in toddlers. The Journal of Pediatrics, 164(1), 26–33.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.07.013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woods, K. E., Mazursky-Horowitz, H., Thomas, S. R., Dougherty, L. R., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2019). The unique effects of maternal ADHD symptoms and emotion dysregulation on parenting behavior. Journal of Attention Disorders, 25(5), 672–684. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054719829820 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodward, L. J., Bora, S., Clark, C. A. C., Montgomery-Hönger, A., Pritchard, V. E., Spencer, C., & Austin, N. C. (2014). Very preterm birth: Maternal experiences of the neonatal intensive care unit. Journal of Perinatology, 34(7), 555–561. https://doi.org/10.1038/jp.2014.43 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodward, L. J., Clark, C. A. C., Pritchard, V. E., Anderson, P. J., & Inder, T. E. (2011). Neonatal white matter abnormalities predict global executive function impairment in children born very preterm. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(1), 22–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2011.540530 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodworth, S., Belsky, J., & Crnic, K. (1996). The determinants of fathering during the child’s second and third years of life: A developmental analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 58(3), 679–692. https://doi.org/10.2307/353728 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yaari, M., Mankuta, D., Harel-Gadassi, A., Friedlander, E., Bar-Oz, B., Eventov-Friedman, S., … Yirmiya, N. (2017). Early developmental trajectories of preterm infants. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 81(Epub), 12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.018 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zvara, B. J., Keim, S. A., Boone, K. M., & Anderson, S. E. (2019). Associations between parenting behavior and executive function among preschool-aged children born very preterm. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 48(3), 317–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.01.012 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Lean et al. supplementary material

Appendix

Download Lean et al. supplementary material(File)
File 56.5 KB