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5 - Mercury’s Internal Magnetic Field
- Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
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- Book:
- Mercury
- Published online:
- 10 December 2018
- Print publication:
- 20 December 2018, pp 114-143
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Summary
The MESSENGER mission provided a wealth of discoveries regarding Mercury’s present and past magnetic field and completed the first-order characterization of the magnetic fields of the solar system’s inner planets. MESSENGER demonstrated that Mercury is the only inner planet other than Earth to possess a global magnetic field generated by fluid motions in its liquid iron core. The field possesses some similarities to that of Earth, particularly its dipolar nature, but it is more than a factor of 100 weaker at the surface and unlike Earth’s field is highly asymmetric about the geographic equator. This structure constrains the dynamo process that generates the field and in turn the compositional and thermal structure of Mercury’s interior. Measurements made by MESSENGER less than 100 km above the planetary surface revealed signatures of crustal magnetization, at least some of which were acquired in a very ancient global magnetic field. Electric currents flow in the planet’s interior as a result of the dynamic interactions of the global magnetic field with the solar wind. These currents provide information on the radius of Mercury’s electrically conductive core, as well as the conductivity structure of the crust and mantle, which in turn reflects interior composition and temperature.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Contributors
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- By Yasir Abu-Omar, Matthew E. Atkins, Joseph E. Arrowsmith, Alan Ashworth, Rubia Baldassarri, Craig R. Bailey, David J. Barron, Christiana C. Burt, David Cardone, Coralie Carle, Jose Coddens, Alan M. Cohen, Simon Colah, Sarah Conolly, David J. Daly, Helen M. Daly, Stefan G. De Hert, Ravi J. De Silva, Mark Dougherty, John J. Dunning, Maros Elsik, Betsy Evans, Florian Falter, Nigel Farnum, Jens Fassl, Juliet E. Foweraker, Simon P. Fynn, Andrew I. Gardner, Margaret I. Gillham, Martin J. Goddard, Maximilien J. Gourdin, Jon Graham, Stephen J. Gray, Cameron Graydon, Fabio Guarracino, Roger M. O. Hall, Michael Haney, Charles W. Hogue, Ben W. Howes, Bevan Hughes, Siân I. Jaggar, David P. Jenkins, Jörn Karhausen, Todd Kiefer, Khalid Khan, Andrew A. Klein, John D. Kneeshaw, Andrew C. Knowles, Catherine V. Koffel, R. Clive Landis, Trevor W. R. Lee, Clive J. Lewis, Jonathan H. Mackay, Amod Manocha, Jonathan B. Mark, Sarah Marstin, William T. McBride, Kenneth H. McKinlay, Alan F. Merry, Berend Mets, Britta Millhoff, Kevin P. Morris, Samer A. M. Nashef, Andrew Neitzel, Stephane Noble, Rabi Panigrahi, Barbora Parizkova, J. M. Tom Pierce, Mihai V. Podgoreanu, Hans-Joachim Priebe, Paul Quinton, C. Ramaswamy Rajamohan, Doris M. Rassl, Tom Rawlings, Fiona E. Reynolds, Andrew J. Richardson, David Riddington, Andrew Roscoe, Paul H. M. Sadleir, Ving Yuen See Tho, Herve Schlotterbeck, Maura Screaton, Shitalkumar Shah, Harjot Singh, Jon H. Smith, M. L. Srikanth, Yeewei W. Teo, Kamen P. Valchanov, Jean-Pierre van Besouw, Isabeau A. Walker, Stephen T. Webb, Francis C. Wells, John Whitbread, Charles Willmott, Patrick Wouters
- Edited by Jonathan H. Mackay, Joseph E. Arrowsmith
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- Book:
- Core Topics in Cardiac Anesthesia
- Published online:
- 05 April 2012
- Print publication:
- 15 March 2012, pp x-xiii
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Contributors
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- By Joanne R. Adler, David A. Alexander, Laurence Alison, Catherine C. Ayoub, Peter Banister, Anthony R. Beech, Amanda Biggs, Julian Boon, Adrian Bowers, Neil Brewer, Eric Broekaert, Paula Brough, Jennifer M. Brown, Kevin Browne, Elizabeth A. Campbell, David Canter, Michael Carlin, Shihning Chou, Martin A. Conway, Claire Cooke, David Cooke, Ilse Derluyn, Robert J. Edelmann, Vincent Egan, Tom Ellis, Marie Eyre, David P. Farrington, Seena Fazel, Daniel B. Fishman, Victoria Follette, Katarina Fritzon, Elizabeth Gilchrist, Nathan D. Gillard, Renée Gobeil, Agnieszka Golec de Zavala, Jane Goodman-Delahunty, Lynsey Gozna, Don Grubin, Gisli H. Gudjonsson, Helinä Häkkänen-Nyholm, Guy Hall, Nathan Hall, Roisin Hall, Sean Hammond, Leigh Harkins, Grant T. Harris, Camilla Herbert, Robert D. Hoge, Todd E. Hogue, Clive R. Hollin, Lorraine Hope, Miranda A. H. Horvath, Kevin Howells, Carol A. Ireland, Jane L. Ireland, Mark Kebbell, Michael King, Bruce D. Kirkcaldy, Heidi La Bash, Cara Laney, William R. Lindsay, Elizabeth F. Loftus, L. E. Marshall, W. L. Marshall, James McGuire, Neil McKeganey, T. M. McMillan, Mary McMurran, Joav Merrick, Becky Milne, Joanne M. Nadkarni, Claire Nee, M. D. O’Brien, William O’Donohue, Darragh O’Neill, Jane Palmer, Adria Pearson, Derek Perkins, Devon L. L. Polaschek, Louise E. Porter, Charlotte C. Powell, Graham E. Powell, Martine Powell, Christine Puckering, Ethel Quayle, Vernon L. Quinsey, Marnie E. Rice, Randall Richardson-Vejlgaard, Richard Rogers, Louis B Schlesinger, Carolyn Semmler, G. A. Serran, Ralph C. Serin, John L. Taylor, Max Taylor, Brian Thomas-Peter, Paul A. Tiffin, Graham Towl, Rosie Travers, Arlene Vetere, Graham Wagstaff, Helen Wakeling, Fiona Warren, Brandon C. Welsh, David Wexler, Margaret Wilson, Dan Yarmey, Susan Young
- Edited by Jennifer M. Brown, London School of Economics and Political Science, Elizabeth A. Campbell, University of Glasgow
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- The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology
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- 06 July 2010
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- 29 April 2010, pp xix-xxiii
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Effects of bilingualism, noise, and reverberation on speech perception by listeners with normal hearing
- CATHERINE L. ROGERS, JENNIFER J. LISTER, DASHIELLE M. FEBO, JOAN M. BESING, HARVEY B. ABRAMS
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- Applied Psycholinguistics / Volume 27 / Issue 3 / July 2006
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- 14 July 2006, pp. 465-485
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This study compared monosyllabic word recognition in quiet, noise, and noise with reverberation for 15 monolingual American English speakers and 12 Spanish–English bilinguals who had learned English prior to 6 years of age and spoke English without a noticeable foreign accent. Significantly poorer word recognition scores were obtained for the bilingual listeners than for the monolingual listeners under conditions of noise and noise with reverberation, but not in quiet. Although bilinguals with little or no foreign accent in their second language are often assumed by their peers, or their clinicians in the case of hearing loss, to be identical in perceptual abilities to monolinguals, the present data suggest that they may have greater difficulty in recognizing words in noisy or reverberant listening environments.
Genetic and physiological variation in isolates of Verticillium fungicola causing dry bubble disease of the cultivated button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus
- Sergio JUAREZ DEL CARMEN, Michèle L. LARGETEAU-MAMOUN, Thierry ROUSSEAU, Catherine REGNAULT-ROGER, Jean-Michel SAVOIE
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- Mycological Research / Volume 106 / Issue 10 / October 2002
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- 03 December 2002, pp. 1163-1170
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- October 2002
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The objectives of this study were to examine genetic variation, physiological dissimilarities and diversity in pathogenicity between Verticillium fungicola var. aleophilum and var. fungicola and within a population of six V. fungicola var. fungicola strains responsible for dry bubble outbreaks on mushroom farms. Genetic variability was investigated using random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Mycelial growth rate, extracellular enzyme production and susceptibility to hydrogen peroxide were used to examine physiological dissimilarities. Variation in pathogenicity was studied both in vitro and during mushroom cultivation. All the physiological properties studied indicated that var. aleophilum isolates were potentially more efficient than var. fungicola isolates for rapid colonisation of the mushroom cultivation medium. They could then interact more efficiently with Agaricus bisporus to produce dry bubble disease. RAPD analysis confirmed that all the French isolates belonged to var. fungicola, and two isolates were distinguishable from the homogeneous group constituted by the others. These isolates had a higher mycelial growth rate and lower extracellular enzyme activities in liquid media, except for chitinases. Their spores were more susceptible to germination inhibition by hydrogen peroxide, and they were responsible for higher levels of affected mushrooms. The two varieties might be regarded as pathotypes that are geographically isolated, and variation in isolates of var. fungicola might have consequence for mushroom growers.
1 - Introduction
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 1-11
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Summary
The Discovery of Spontaneous Fission in Plutonium
It was the spring of 1944. In a secluded canyon in New Mexico, 14 miles from the bustling technical area of the wartime Los Alamos Laboratory, three physics graduate students were working inside a Forest Service log cabin filled with electronics. For the past eight months, they had been driving there each day by jeep to search for evidence of “spontaneous fission,” a naturally occurring process in which certain heavy atomic nuclei split of their own accord, emitting neutrons. Anxiously, they puzzled over a startling oscilloscope trace produced by a sample of plutonium. Why were these students studying the phenomenon of spontaneous fission in this canyon? What caused their concern?
The professor in charge of the work, nuclear physicist Emilio Segrè, had fled Italy in 1938 and joined Ernest Lawrence's nuclear physics laboratory in Berkeley, California. In 1943, at the request of theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, Segré had moved several of his Berkeley experiments to Los Alamos to be part of Project Y – the secret project to build the first atomic bombs. Jointly directed by Oppenheimer and military engineer Gen. Leslie R. Groves, Project Y was a part of the Manhattan Project (the Manhattan Engineer District). Before World War II, Los Alamos, a small New Mexico town on a high mesa, had been the site of a ranch school for boys.
8 - The Implosion Program Accelerates: September 1943 to July 1944
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 129-162
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Summary
By late summer 1944, the implosion program was among the laboratory's highest priorities. It had started out as a small, informally run, back burner effort of a handful of researchers surrounding the reserved Seth Neddermeyer (Chapter 4). Between the fall of 1943 and the summer of 1944, it was transformed into a well-coordinated, multidisciplinary research effort of more than fourteen groups operating within T-Division and the newly created Gadget (G) and Explosives (X) Divisions.
The shift began with a visit in late September 1943 by the great mathematician and physicist John von Neumann. On learning about Neddermeyer's test implosions of small cylindrical metal shells, von Neumann pointed out that their efficiency could be increased using a substantially higher ratio of explosive to metal mass, which would promote more rapid assembly. The suggestion excited leading Los Alamos theorists, including Bethe, Oppenheimer, and Teller, who could now envision an atomic weapon requiring active material having less mass and a lower level of purity than was needed in the gun device – advantages of particular interest to General Groves.
Theorists, particularly Bethe and Teller, spent more and more time on implosion questions, while von Neumann continued to work on theoretical aspects of the implosion in Washington, D.C. The new implosion theory group was set up in March 1944 under Teller to develop the mathematical description of implosion. Additional experimentalists joined the program. Neddermeyer's E-Division group expanded from five to roughly fifty.
20 - The Legacy of Los Alamos
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 403-417
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Summary
The United States would not have been able to complete the atomic bomb project without its vigorous economy and substantial industrial facilities. However, the scientific resources of the nation were just as important, given the existing gaps in scientific knowledge at the time Los Alamos opened its doors. President Roosevelt's decision to support atomic bomb research preceded the first demonstration of a divergent chain reaction, the development of an industrial-scale method for separating 235U, and determination of plutonium's chemical and physical properties. In organizing the American atomic bomb project, Vannevar Bush drew on a sizable community of well-trained scientists having a wide repertoire of techniques and approaches. In bringing these tools to bear on the wartime problem of building the atomic bomb, the Los Alamos scientists developed a new approach to research.
What were the elements of this approach? First, the research was bound even more tightly than was conventional science to the behavior of artifacts and apparatus. The bombs had to explode, the detonators to fire, and the shape of the gadgets was constrained by that of the B-29 bomb bays. The technology had, in principle, to be totally reliable. Malfunctioning meant failure – it could no longer be construed as but another step in the process of understanding the physical world. In a context in which the lack of funding was not a constraint on research, one result was that solutions were often approached in several ways at once.
Epilogue
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 398-402
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Summary
The Japanese began surrender negotiations one day after the Nagasaki bombing. Communities everywhere experienced the war's end with heartfelt relief. Los Alamos scientists were particularly proud of the unique role they had played in bringing the war to a close. The relief – and pride – were short-lived, for most of those who had worked on the bomb suffered loss of focus, while confronting an array of difficult choices, for example, whether to feel guilty for adding atomic bombs to the world's arsenal, and whether to continue working at Los Alamos. For a short time, the technical work of the laboratory slowed down, almost to a halt.
Responses to the war's end at Los Alamos varied a great deal. Laura Fermi recalls children parading through the streets, banging on pots and pans and joyfully making mini-explosions, while their parents grappled with the sobering implications of their achievement. Depression typically followed a short period of relief. Richard Feynman recalls that while he sat on a jeep and pounded on drums during one of the many end-of-the-war parties held at Los Alamos, he noticed that Robert Wilson was not jubilant. Feynman also became depressed soon afterward. Only a few of the scientists saw hope in the fact that the bomb was so destructive – believing that nuclear weapons might actually end all wars because the second use of so terrible a weapon was unlikely.
11 - Uranium and Plutonium: Early 1943 to August 1944
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 205-227
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Summary
The story of the production of fissionable materials at Los Alamos is about the challenges of working with little-known, scarce substances under difficult experimental conditions, as well as the excitement of discoveries and unexpected turns in the course of all-out efforts to achieve practical results quickly. The interplay between the plutonium and uranium efforts within CM-Division reflects the wartime strategy of pairing complicated and straightforward tasks. In this way, personnel, equipment, and time could be focused on the most demanding problems. Thus, the relatively simple effort to produce uranium gun parts at Los Alamos complemented the more difficult effort to produce plutonium spheres, just as the relatively simpler gun program as a whole later complemented the more complex implosion program. Those implementing the less intricate effort were under pressure to proceed rapidly and produce absolutely reliable results meeting all contingencies so that more of the group's resources could be diverted to the thornier problem. Consequently, the uranium program was remarkably fast-paced and rigorous. The need to make the most of resources and save time weighed especially on Joseph Kennedy, Arthur Wahl, and Cyril Stanley Smith in CM-Division, because they had to adjust to the changing requirements of the other divisions, for whom they provided support services, while at the same time working to achieve their own goals.
5 - Research in the First Months of Project Y: April to September 1943
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 67-90
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Summary
As soon as the Los Alamos Laboratory opened its doors, committees were formed to plan the research program and cope with practicalities. Robert Serber offered an indoctrination course early in April 1943 to acquaint scientists with the current state of research on the atomic bomb. Conferences that month laid out specific research objectives. Even though many fission constants were poorly determined and the accuracy of approximations was generally low, Los Alamos physicists were confident that a reasonably efficient gun bomb could be built. Acceptance of the gun as a workable assembly lent optimism to the entire project. As a fallback, Oppenheimer established a small research effort under Seth Neddermeyer to explore implosion assembly.
The Planning Board
Committees helped Oppenheimer make major decisions, with Groves's approval. The first informal committee – Robert Wilson, Edwin McMillan, Oppenheimer, Edward Condon (the associate director), John Manley, and Serber – met on 6 March 1943 and considered practicalities, such as when people and equipment would arrive and who would handle services rendered by the machine and electronics shops.
This initial planning group gave way several weeks later to a larger committee called the Planning Board, which coordinated the technical program over the next month. Oppenheimer, Condon, Dana Mitchell, and Julian Mack provided administrative guidance, while Wilson, Serber, John Williams, McMillan, and Donald Mastick planned the scientific program.
Preface
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp ix-xvi
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Summary
The story of the Los Alamos project to build the first atomic bombs has been told often. Why then another history of Project Y, as it was known during World War II? Three features distinguish this account: it is a history of the technical developments; it is based on the full complement of documents, both classified and unclassified, of wartime Los Alamos; and it explores for the first time the methodology by which researchers at Los Alamos succeeded in their wartime mission.
Unlike earlier histories of Los Alamos, this book treats in detail the research and development that led to the implosion and gun weapons; the research in nuclear physics, chemistry, and metallurgy that enabled scientists to design these weapons; and the conception of the thermonuclear bomb, the “Super.” Although fascinating in its own right, this story has particular interest because of its impact on subsequent developments. Although many books examine the implications of Los Alamos for the development of a nuclear weapons culture, this is the first to study its role in the rise of the methodology of “big science” as carried out in large national laboratories.
Our primary aim is to recount this technical history, but we have not ignored the social context entirely. Although we largely leave for other historians the problem of analyzing the social community at Los Alamos in wartime – for example, the role of women, of foreign scientists, and of military personnel – we do provide an abbreviated account of the establishment and early years of the unique community that grew around the Los Alamos Laboratory.
10 - The Nuclear Properties of a Fission Weapon: September 1943 to July 1944
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 178-204
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Summary
Between the summers of 1943 and 1944, the Theoretical Division, under Hans Bethe, and the Physics Division, under Robert Bacher, collaborated in studying the nuclear physics of the atomic bomb. T-Division's responsibilities included calculating critical mass and efficiency. The lack of hard nuclear-constant data was particularly troubling. While P-Division worked to improve the experimental data using available detectors, accelerators, and other devices, T-Division developed flexible models based on the changing set of available data. To cross-check their results, researchers often used different methods to solve the same problem. For example, the Water Boiler, a nuclear pile using enriched uranium in a water solution, provided a means of checking critical mass calculations. As a backup, Richard Feynman made calculations on uranium hydride, then being considered as a potential active material. Teller's investigation of the hydrogen bomb (the Super) was an alternative approach to a nuclear weapon. The opportunity to conduct physics research on a larger scale than had ever before been attempted gave the Los Alamos physicists the experience of working in well-funded multi-disciplinary groups, which included both experimentalists and theorists, as well as electronics experts, chemists, and metallurgists.
Nuclear Theory: Critical Mass and Efficiency
In September 1943, T-Division was refining its critical mass and efficiency predictions and calculating the damage the bomb could cause. Up to this point, the division had remained somewhat informal in its organization to accommodate changing priorities, but by October it had begun to subdivide into groups: Bethe took on the problem of implosion, Victor Weisskopf led the calculations of efficiency, Robert Serber spearheaded diffusion theory, Edward Teller assumed responsibility for both the Super and implosion, Feynman led the uranium hydride calculations, and Donald Flanders headed the computational effort.
18 - The Test at Trinity: January 1944 to July 1945
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- Critical Assembly
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 350-377
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Just before dawn on 16 July 1945, the area selected for the Trinity test – the desolate Jornada del Muerto region of New Mexico – no longer swarmed with activity, as it had in the past several weeks. The thunder-storms that had worried Groves and Oppenheimer through the night had stopped. The scientists, who had worked almost nonstop in preparing for the first atomic bomb test, waited tensely for the test to begin.
Arranging their apparatuses around the gadget – ionization chambers, seismographs, motion picture cameras, and other devices – they prepared to record physical aspects of the explosion: light, heat, neutrons, gamma rays, and other features. The data would indicate what to expect of combat atomic bombs and how to achieve the most destruction. But even the most careful preparations could not guarantee a successful test, because the weather had to be just right to prevent heavy fallout from reaching populated areas. Completing the test on schedule became of paramount importance when President Harry S. Truman announced that he would meet with Churchill and Stalin at Potsdam on 16 July 1945.
The Experimental Program
Because only a limited number of measurements could be taken at Trinity, the ones to be selected became a critical topic of discussion. A panel consisting of Fussell, Moon, Bernard Waldman, and Victor Weisskopf was assembled to evaluate proposals. Data were needed on both the performance and the effects of the weapon.
12 - The Discovery of Spontaneous Fission in Plutonium and the Reorganization of Los Alamos
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 228-248
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During the spring of 1944, Emilio Segrè's group in P-Division made the startling observation that the first samples of pile-produced 239Pu had an unusually high spontaneous fission rate, with a neutron emission approximately five times that of cyclotron-produced 239Pu. This finding confirmed the gnawing suspicions of Fermi, Segrè, Seaborg, and others that the neutron bath in the production piles at Clinton and Hanford might cause the formation of a significant quantity of 240Pu, an as-yet-unobserved spontaneously fissioning isotope of plutonium. However, the alarmingly high rate of the spontaneous fission was unexpected. This rate increased the neutron background enough to make it highly probable for a gun-assembled gadget to predetonate and thus undermined the plutonium gun program.
Determined not to lose the heavy investment made in plutonium production, Groves forced the laboratory to change course. The primary technical objective shifted from developing a gun weapon to developing a plutonium implosion assembly. Within days after Oppenheimer officially announced the spontaneous fission discovery, the laboratory reorganized its work force to focus on implosion. Two new divisions were established – X (Explosives) under Kistiakowsky, and G (Gadget) under Bacher. Most of the groups in these new divisions were moved out of the earlier Research and Ordnance Engineering divisions. Unfortunately, at this point experiments in the implosion diagnostic program were indicating that an implosion weapon would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to achieve.
4 - Setting Up Project Y: June 1942 to March 1943
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 40-66
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By the time a fast-neutron fission laboratory was conceived early in 1942, theorists and experimentalists had made initial calculations for the bomb, including new estimates of critical mass and efficiency. Some progress had been made on designing methods for assembling the weapon and on a program for measuring nuclear constants central to bomb calculations. On the whole, however, research languished because of poor information exchange among the various groups involved, which were scattered throughout the United States. Oppenheimer, who replaced Gregory Breit as coordinator of the fast-fission project, recommended to Groves that the effort be centralized. Groves, who recognized the security benefits of centralization, readily complied, thereby setting in motion plans for establishing the Los Alamos Laboratory.
Groves and Oppenheimer took the first step toward creating the laboratory in early 1943 by recruiting many of the world's best scientists. The temporary nature of the project and the urgency of its mission aided the recruitment effort, but the task was complicated by the delicate issue of whether Los Alamos would be a military or a civilian establishment – an issue never formally resolved. The standard caricature of Oppenheimer as an other-worldly intellectual and Groves as a burly martinet highlights the misalignment between the military and scientific communities that joined in Project Y. Surprisingly, Oppenheimer and Groves developed a collaboration that was both congenial and fruitful.
15 - Finding the Implosion Design: August 1944 to February 1945
- Lillian Hoddeson, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall, Michigan State University
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- 31 March 2010
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- 28 May 1993, pp 293-314
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Summary
The accelerated implosion effort, which began in August 1944, made rapid progress. By October 1944, James Conant was giving a lensed implosion device a 50–50 chance of working on schedule, if all went smoothly, for a test at Trinity on 1 May 1945 and a “3:1” chance for a test on 1 July. But he added, “In my opinion, the probabilities of success by the gun method (Mark 1) within the next year are very much greater than by the implosion method. Indeed the gun method seems as nearly certain as any untried new procedure can be.”
Overcoming asymmetries remained the outstanding technical problem of the implosion program. By mid-fall 1944, two experimental strands of the implosion program were converging on this problem: research on the explosive lens and on the electric detonator. In addition, in T-Division, Robert Christy put forth a conservative proposal for overcoming the asymmetry: try to implode a solid sphere rather than a spherical shell of active material. However, calculations indicated that the “Christy gadget” was intrinsically far less efficient than the hollow weapon, and that such a device would require a modulated initiator to activate the explosion at the most favorable moment. The call for the development of the implosion initiator added another thorny problem to the program.
As the time approached when sizable quantities of plutonium would become available, gross design features had to be frozen in order to begin final bomb production.
Critical Assembly
- A Technical History of Los Alamos during the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945
- Lillian Hoddeson, Paul W. Henriksen, Roger A. Meade, Catherine L. Westfall
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- Published online:
- 31 March 2010
- Print publication:
- 28 May 1993
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This 1993 volume is a lucid and accurate history of the technical research that led to the first atomic bombs. The authors explore how the 'critical assembly' of scientists, engineers and military personnel at Los Alamos, responding to wartime deadlines, collaborated to create a new approach to large-scale research. The book opens with an introduction laying out major themes. After a synopsis of the prehistory of the bomb project, from the discovery of nuclear fission to the start of the Manhattan Engineer District, and an overview of the early materials programme, the book examines the establishment of the Los Alamos Laboratory, the implosion and gun assembly programmes, nuclear physics research, chemistry and metallurgy, explosives, uranium and plutonium development, confirmation of spontaneous fission in pile-produced plutonium, the thermonuclear bomb, critical assemblies, the Trinity test, and delivery of the combat weapons. Readers interested in history of science will find this volume a crucial resource for understanding the underpinnings of contemporary science and technology.