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A History of Weed Control in the United States and Canada
- F. L. Timmons
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- Journal:
- Weed Science / Volume 18 / Issue 2 / March 1970
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 12 June 2017, pp. 294-307
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Available literature indicates that relatively few agricultural leaders and farmers became interested in weeds as a problem before 1200 A.D. or even 1500 A.D. For many centuries, weed control was mostly incidental to tillage for seedbed preparation and growing of crops and to growing and cutting or pasturing of thickly planted crops. Occasional references in literature previous to 1900 mentioned use of mechanical devices and a few inorganic herbicides specifically for weed control.
State weed laws directed at control of plant diseases were enacted during 1721 to 1766, but weed and seed laws involving weeds directly were not enacted until 100 to 200 years later. Only a few extension-type publications on weeds were issued in the United States and Canada between 1860 and 1900. There was a rapid increase in such publications after 1900. Research with inorganic chemicals as herbicides was begun in the 1890's in Europe and in a few states and provinces, and was increased at a rapid pace until the early 1940's. New developments in mechanical and biological control of weeds increased steadily during the same period. However, weed control remained a relatively minor phase of agronomy, botany, horticulture, agricultural engineering, and plant physiology until the early 1950's.
About 10 years after the discovery of (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid (2,4-D) in 1942–1944, the much increased interest of scientists, federal and state governments, industrial companies, and the general public had begun to bear fruit. The word “weed” or “weeds” began to appear in the titles of college courses and extension specialists. Weed conferences had been organized in six regions of the United States and Canada and in 10 states.
The first meeting of the Weed Science Society of America was held in 1956 and Weed Science was adopted as its official journal. The number of herbicides in general use in the United States and Canada increased from 15 in 1940 to 25 in 1950, and to 100 in 1969. The total support for weed research in 1962 in the United States was six times that in 1950. The number of full-time research and extension workers or their equivalents in part-time workers had increased 20-fold and 13-fold, respectively, over the number in 1940.
The rate of advancement in the art and science of weed control has increased so rapidly that the progress in each of the recent brief periods 1941 to 1968, 1901 to 1940, and 1800 to 1900 is considered greater than that in all previous periods, beginning about 6000 B.C.
A History of Weed Control in the United States and Canada
- F. L. Timmons
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- Journal:
- Weed Science / Volume 53 / Issue 6 / December 2005
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 20 January 2017, pp. 748-761
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Available literature indicates that relatively few agricultural leaders and farmers became interested in weeds as a problem before 1200 A.D. or even 1500 A.D. For many centuries, weed control was mostly incidental to tillage for seedbed preparation and growing of crops and to growing and cutting or pasturing of thickly planted crops. Occasional references in literature previous to 1900 mentioned use of mechanical devices and a few inorganic herbicides specifically for weed control.
State weed laws directed at control of plant diseases were enacted during 1721 to 1766, but weed and seed laws involving weeds directly were not enacted until 100 to 200 years later. Only a few extension type publications on weeds were issued in the United States and Canada between 1860 and 1900. There was a rapid increase in such publications after 1900. Research with inorganic chemicals as herbicides was begun in the 1890's in Europe and in a few states and provinces, and was increased at a rapid pace until the early 1940's. New developments in mechanical and biological control of weeds increased steadily during the same period. However, weed control remained a relatively minor phase of agronomy, botany, horticulture, agricultural engineering, and plant physiology until the early 1950's.
About 10 years after the discovery of (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid (2,4-D) in 1942–1944, the much increased interest of scientists, federal and state governments, industrial companies, and the general public had begun to bear fruit. The word “weed” or “weeds” began to appear in the titles of college courses and extension specialists. Weed conferences had been organized in six regions of the United States and Canada and in 10 states.
The first meeting of the Weed Science Society of America was held in 1956 and Weed Science was adopted as its official journal. The number of herbicides in general use in the United States and Canada increased from 15 in 1940 to 25 in 1950, and to 100 in 1969. The total support for weed research in 1962 in the United States was six times that in 1950. The number of full-time research and extension workers or their equivalents in part-time workers had increased 20-fold and 13-fold, respectively, over the number in 1940.
The rate of advancement in the art and science of weed control has increased so rapidly that the progress in each of the recent brief periods 1941 to 1968, 1901 to 1940, and 1800 to 1900 is considered greater than that in all previous periods, beginning about 6000 B.C.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Effect of Sunlight on the Phytotoxicity of Some Phenylurea and Triazine Herbicides on a Soil Surface
- R. D. Comes, F. L. Timmons
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Toxicity to oats of atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-s-triazine), simazine (2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine), diuron (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea), monuron (3-(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea), and fenuron (3-phenyl-1,1-dimethylurea), exposed to sunlight on soil surface for 25 days was significantly decreased even when surface soil temperatures did not exceed 120 F. Only atrazine and monuron exhibited significantly less phytotoxicity after 60 days exposure than after 25 days. Simazine phytotoxicity also was significantly reduced when held on soil in the dark for 60 days. With the exception of fenuron, there was no difference between treatments within compounds when soil temperatures reached maximums as high as 180 F. Under these conditions, phytotoxicity of the herbicides was reduced 65 to 97 percent by all exposures.
Penetration and Persistence of Diuron in Soil
- L. W. Weldon, F. L. Timmons
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The selective control of weeds in crops by the use of 3–(3,4–dichlorophenyl)–1,1–dimethylurea (diuron) has had considerable attention the last five years. Some of the problems of applying diuron are how long and at what depths the herbicide remains in the soil after treatment, with different methods and amounts of irrigation.
Photochemical Degradation of Diuron and Monuron
- L. W. Weldon, F. L. Timmons
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Considerable attention has been given during recent years to the fate of herbicides sprayed onto soil surfaces. The effect of light upon herbicides also has been studied extensively. Payne and Fults by means of a biological test found that the potency of 2,4–D was increased by exposure to ultraviolet light. Hansen and Buchholtz found that when a solution containing 2,4–D and riboflavin was exposed to light the activity of 2,4–D was reduced. They tentatively identified the breakdown product as 2,4–dichlorophenol. Later Bell positively identified it.
A Study of Factors Which Influence Effectiveness of Amitrol and Dalapon on Common Cattail
- F. L. Timmons, L. W. Weldon, W. O. Lee
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Cattails (Typha spp) are common and troublesome emergent aquatic weeds throughout the United States. They interfere with proper utilization and maintenance of irrigation and drainage canals. They further interfere with flow of water in channels where water velocity is low, and cause deposition of silt. In reservoirs, farm ponds, marshes, and lake margins, cattails waste large quantities of water, crowd out plants which produce food for wildlife and often interfere with fishing, boating, and other uses of these bodies of water.
Promising Herbicidal Methods for the Control of Annual Weeds in Seed Crops of Onions
- L. R. Hawthorn, F. L. Timmons, W. O. Lee
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A seed field of bolting onions is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to weed satisfactorily by hoeing or any mechanical means without serious reduction in seed yield, because of the ease with which seed stalks are broken. Injury to seed stalks results in lower seed yields, but if the weeds are allowed to grow they also reduce seed yields. The presence of weed seeds makes cleaning more difficult and may reduce yields further, because foreign material and weed seeds can rarely, if ever, be separated satisfactorily without the removal of some crop seed. Actually few, if any, commercial growers practice either cultivation or handweeding after the onion crop has begun to go to seed. Consequently, exceptionally weedy fields are common in onion-seed-growing sections. The use of herbicides as a possible solution to this difficult problem has been studied in Utah since 1949, with some promising results.