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12 - Expression Entails Anticipation
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- By Jens Förster, International University, Bremen, Germany, and University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Ronald S. Friedman, University of Albany, State University of New York, NY, USA
- Gün R. Semin, Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, Eliot R. Smith, Indiana University, Bloomington
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- Book:
- Embodied Grounding
- Published online:
- 05 June 2012
- Print publication:
- 31 March 2008, pp 289-308
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Summary
Expressive behavior represents more than merely a reaction to stimuli in the external world. Obviously, individuals nod when they are in agreement and embrace when they like one another; however, because the link between information processing and expressive behavior is overlearned, over the course of a lifetime, even innate expressive behavior comes to reciprocally influence the way that individuals process information. Accordingly, research on the impact of bodily feedback has repeatedly demonstrated that unobtrusively induced expression patterns can unintentionally influence cognition, emotion, and behavior.
In this chapter, we will argue that models accounting for such effects largely overlap with models predicting affective influences on cognition and behavior because they focus on the affective meaning of the bodily patterns. However, some bodily cues can activate systems of approach or avoidance, triggering strategic inclinations that operate independent of affect. We will introduce a self-regulatory model to explain such effects. Let us first summarize some of the pertinent findings.
FACIAL AND BODILY FEEDBACK EFFECTS: SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
Effects of bodily expression patterns have been found on feelings, evaluative judgments, memory, and behavior. For example, several experiments have shown that unobtrusively induced expression patterns influence participants' reported feelings (e.g., Zajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart, 1989). Prominently, Stepper and Strack (1993) found that participants feel pride more intensely if they experience positive feedback while maintaining a positive, upright body position than if they receive the same feedback while in a negative, slouched position.
Measurement of fluid turbulence based on pulsed ultrasound techniques. Part 1. Analysis
- Joseph L. Garbini, Fred K. Forster, Jens E. Jorgensen
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- Journal:
- Journal of Fluid Mechanics / Volume 118 / May 1982
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 20 April 2006, pp. 445-470
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The pulsed ultrasonic Doppler velocimeter has been used extensively in transcutaneous measurement of the velocity of blood in the human body. It would be useful to evaluate turbulent flow with this device in both medical and non-medical applications. However, the complex behaviour and limitations of the pulsed Doppler velocimeter when applied to random flow have not yet been fully investigated.
In this study a three-dimensional stochastic model of the pulsed ultrasonic Doppler velocimeter for the case of a highly focused and damped transducer and isotropic turbulence is presented. The analysis predicts the correlation and spectral functions of the Doppler signal and the detected velocity signal. The analysis addresses specifically the considerations and limitations of measuring turbulent intensities and one-dimensional velocity spectra.
Results show that the turbulent intensity can be deduced from the broadening of the spectrum of the Doppler signal and a mathematical description of the effective sample-volume directivity.
In the measurement of one-dimensional velocity spectra at least two major complicacations are identified and quantified. First, the presence of a time-varying, broad-band random process (the Doppler ambiguity process) obscures the spectrum of the random velocity. This phenomenon is similar to that occurring in laser anemometry, but the ratio of the level of the ambiguity spectrum to the largest detected velocity spectral component can be typically two to three orders of magnitude greater for ultrasonic technique owing to the much greater wavelength.
Secondly, the spatial averaging of the velocity field in the sample volume causes attenuation in the measured velocity spectrum. For the ultrasonic velocimeter, this effect is very significant.
The influence of the Doppler ambiguity process can be reduced by the use of two sample volumes on the same acoustic beam. The signals from the two sample volumes are cross-correlated, removing the Doppler ambiguity process, while retaining the random velocity. The effects of this technique on the detected velocity spectrum are quantified explicitly in the analysis for the case of a three-dimensional Gaussianshaped sample-volume directivity.
Measurement of fluid turbulence based on pulsed ultrasound techniques. Part 2. Experimental investigation
- Joseph L. Garbini, Fred K. Forster, Jens E. Jorgensen
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- Journal:
- Journal of Fluid Mechanics / Volume 118 / May 1982
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 20 April 2006, pp. 471-505
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An extensive experimental programme in both laminar and turbulent flow was undertaken to examine the validity of all of the major implications of the model of the pulsed ultrasonic Doppler velocimeter for turbulent flow developed in part 1 of this investigation. The turbulence measurements were made in fully developed flow at the centre of a 6·28 cm diameter pipe. The Reynolds number of the flow ranged from 6000 to 40000. The carrier frequency of the ultrasonic velocimeter was 4·7 MHz.
Measurements of the turbulence intensity and of the one-dimensional velocity spectra made with the ultrasonic velocimeter are compared with the analysis and with the actual quantities as measured by a hot-film anemometer. The experimental results are in agreement with theoretical predictions.
Measurements of one-dimensional turbulence spectra with reduced ambiguity spectra made by the two sample volume methods described in part 1 are presented. The results verify the analysis and indicate that an improvement in the useful dynamic range of the velocity power spectrum of nearly three orders of magnitude can realistically be achieved.
13 - Motivation and Construct Accessibility
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- By Nira Liberman, Department of Psychology, Tel Aviv University, Jens Förster, Department of Psychology, International University, Bremen
- Edited by Joseph P. Forgas, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Kipling D. Williams, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Simon M. Laham, University of New South Wales, Sydney
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- Book:
- Social Motivation
- Published online:
- 04 August 2010
- Print publication:
- 04 October 2004, pp 228-246
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Summary
INTRODUCTION
Given the recent trend toward distinguishing between implicit and explicit processes in a number of areas in social psychology, the present volume can make a timely contribution to applying this distinction to motivational processes. In this chapter, we will focus mainly on implicit motivational mechanisms and, in particular, on the role of goal-related accessibility in motivated thinking and behavior. Theories in both cognitive and social psychology propose that motivational states such as needs, goals, intentions, and concerns are characterized by enhanced accessibility of motivation-related constructs (Anderson, 1983; Bruner, 1957; Higgins & King, 1981; Wyer and Srull, 1986, 1989). Similar ideas came from theories of motivation and volition (Ach, 1935; Gollwitzer 1996; Gollwitzer & Moskowitz, 1996; Goschke & Kuhl, 1993; Kuhl, 1983; 1987; Kuhl & Kazén-Saad, 1988). In this chapter, we summarize some general principles of accessibility from motivational sources, and briefly review extant and novel empirical evidence for these principles. We then discuss a possible theoretical account for these principles within a general functional approach to accessibility. Finally, we examine some implications of the outlined theory for person perception, postsuppressional rebound, and catharsis of aggression.
ACCESSIBILITY FROM MOTIVATIONAL SOURCES: GENERAL PRINCIPLES
We propose the following principles to characterize accessibility from motivational sources such as goals, needs, or concerns: (a) Motivation enhances the accessibility of motivation-related constructs; (b) accessibility from motivational sources persists until the motivation is fulfilled or becomes irrelevant; (c) fulfillment of the motivation inhibits the accessibility of motivation-related constructs; and (d) accessibility of motivation-related constructs and postfulfillment inhibition are proportional to the strength of the motivation.