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List of Figures and Tables
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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2 - Slaves and Spending
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Summary
One Saturday night in May 1851, a group of slaves gathered in a cabin on Simpson’s plantation in Anderson District, South Carolina. Eager to earn some extra cash, Joe planned to steal, then sell, a few turkeys from James Gray’s farm and tried to enlist his fellow slaves to go along with him. Despite concerns by Leah and Henry that the would-be thieves would “get into a scrape,” Sam agreed to join Joe in the heist. As they watched the two men slip into the woods, Henry turned to Leah and asked, “Joe loves money don’t he?”
Why wouldn’t Joe love money? Having property and cash presented Joe with opportunities ostensibly denied to slaves of the antebellum South. He could purchase food and tobacco as supplement to weekly rations, drink and gamble, or participate in a wider consumer market, purchasing manufactured goods such as hats, dresses, umbrellas, and watches. Joe may have even derived a sense of empowerment from the jingle of silver in his pocket and the sight and feel of banknotes held securely in his own pocketbook. Leah, however, interpreted the situation differently. In response to Henry’s assessment of Joe, she commented, “Joe is like the rest ... but that he was not to be depended on.” Even though Leah probably had benefited materially from the availability of cash among her fellows, her remark reveals a mindful ambivalence toward the role of the market and the availability of cash within the slave community. Perhaps she was wary of temptations and tensions that market activity could engender or, maybe, Joe’s desire for money served as an all too stark reminder of her master’s own avarice, a characteristic that could only find fulfillment through the exploitation of the labor of, or equity in, her and her family.
Index
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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- 23 December 2013, pp 211-217
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6 - The Choice
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Summary
My husband was a slave – he hired himself and worked hard and saved his money and bought himself – he then married me and afterwards bought me of my master about 30 years ago. My daughter Bettie was then two years old and my husband and I bought her – that is the way we became free – we then all worked hard and saved our wages until we could buy the place where I now live.
Commenting on eighteenth-century probate inventories, Ann Smart Martin has characterized the furniture, silverware, candlesticks, bedding, and other material goods represented therein, not as a snapshot of spending and acquisition, but rather as a representation of a lifetime of consumption. Although she does not provide a clear timeline of purchase, through her 1873 petition, Annie Smith relayed a similar story to members of the Southern Claims Commission in Stafford, Virginia. The purchase of herself, her husband, and her daughter surely involved careful planning and, likely, material sacrifice.
What were some of these sacrifices? Smith did not elaborate, but the foregoing chapters indicate that a vast array of material goods were available to slaves looking to spend their money on more immediate needs and desires, essentially creating a material image of themselves and their surroundings, however temporary, that was markedly different from the ones prescribed by their masters. Harriet Jacobs, a woman who eventually would appropriate her body through theft rather than purchase, commented on the drab clothing provisioned by her master. Regarding the “linsey-woolsey dress” supplied to her and her fellow bondwomen every winter, she exclaimed, “How I hated it! It was one of the badges of slavery.” As we have seen, through engagement in the internal economy, enslaved men and women could replace material “badges of slavery” with, presumably, markers of freedom – a gold watch, a silk vest, a dram of liquor drunk in a tavern with local white and black men. They may have dreamed of one day purchasing themselves or their families, but the risks, limitations, or simple impracticalities of the marketplace for slave bodies often made more immediate material spending more gratifying.
Frontmatter
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Bibliography
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Acknowledgments
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Masters, Slaves, and Exchange
- Power's Purchase in the Old South
- Kathleen M. Hilliard
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This book examines the political economy of the master-slave relationship viewed through the lens of consumption and market exchange. What did it mean when human chattel bought commodities, 'stole' property, or gave and received gifts? Forgotten exchanges, this study argues, measured the deepest questions of worth and value, shaping an enduring struggle for power between slaves and masters. The slaves' internal economy focused intense paternalist negotiation on a ground where categories of exchange - provision, gift, contraband, and commodity - were in constant flux. At once binding and alienating, these ties endured constant moral stresses and material manipulation by masters and slaves alike, galvanizing conflict and engendering complex new social relations on and off the plantation.
Note on Sources
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Contents
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Introduction
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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There was nothing unusual about the transactions: four sales – tobacco, a fine tooth comb, calico, and sugar – listed in sequence. Others bought more or less that day in early March 1855 – a bunch of twine, an assortment of hats, a box of caps. The clerk who logged the day’s business surely recognized the purchasers, as the store’s daybook listed their names several times before. Often grouped together in the ledger, they showed up once or twice a week. Elijah, Mattison, Dick, and Giss were regular customers.
Of these men, we know little more. Their names do not appear in census rolls. They left no memoirs. No wills or probate documents explicate their identity or achievements at death. The tattered pages of storekeeper Stephen McCulley’s daybook from Anderson, South Carolina, offer the most lasting history of these men’s lives. Yet these records hint at key relationships and vital choices enacted both in Anderson and across the Old South. The surnames appearing next to those four transactions did not belong to the buyers of goods. Mr. Bailey, Mr. Boaseman, Mr. McCulley, and Col. Sanders claimed those names and, tragically, the men themselves. Elijah, Mattison, Dick, and Giss were slaves, people called property, discovered here in the undeniably human act of commodity exchange.
3 - Servants Served
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Enslaved, for the most part, from birth until childhood, ex-slaves interviewed in the 1930s by the Works Progress Administration reveal a wide variety of experiences within the institution of Old South slavery. Tempered by both time and Jim Crow realities, the narratives vary in tone, in some cases gushing praise about “de’ old times” and, in others, venting lingering frustration about the hardships of bonded life. Children, as portrayed through the narratives, experienced both of these extremes and in later years recounted those events that had affected them most with vivid detail. For South Carolina ex-slave Gus Feaster, his first visit to the trading post was one of those experiences. According to the aged South Carolinian, “Mammy said ‘howdy’ to all de darkies what dar and I look at dem from behind her skirts. I felt real curious-like all inside ... I seed so many things dat I never had seed befo’, not in all my born days.” Although colorful bolts of cloth, barrels of sundries, and shelves of tools, trinkets, and clothing likely stood before him, one particular set of goods drew Feaster’s attention. He remarked with wonder, “Red sticks o’ candy was a laying right dar fo’ my eyes, jes’ like de folks from de big house brung us at Christmas. It was not near Christmas den ... I wondered how-come dey was having candy in de store fer, now-how.” Following the boy’s gaze, Feaster’s mother turned to the clerk, a man with a beard, and asked, “Marse, please sir, give me five cent worth peppermint candy.” Having satisfied her young son, his mother turned to the errand at hand, purchasing a bonnet for “ten dollars worth o’ cotton.”
Conclusion
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Summary
But, tell me, Faustus, shall I have thy soul?
And I will be thy slave, and wait on thee,
And give thee more than thou has wit to ask.
Across three generations and more, countless masters and slaves posed the question Mephistopheles asked and made their choice. Faustus’s reward of riches and power was blighted by the knowledge that earthly abundance was fleeting; twenty-four years on he would be dragged down to hell and torn limb from limb. Whatever gratification they found in the temporary comforts of material exchange, masters knew and slaves surmised, there could be no lasting solace: the same fate, in one form or another, must befall all who worship Mammon.
Tens of thousands of individual transactions dot the documentary record of the Old South. In these scratched ciphers, practical prescriptions, and righteous recollections, we see snapshots, not just of local economic exchange or the banality of slave life, but of inexorable political struggle. Indeed, in most of the transactions this book has described, we see only the point of collision, that moment when goods, cash, or promises passed from hand to hand. The goal of this book has been both to understand the way forces accumulated, focused, and arrived at the point of contest and to trace the repercussions that echoed outward, reaching far out from the moment of talk and trade in which they began.
Archive Abbreviations
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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5 - Gilt Chains
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Summary
“The gift-making seasons were times of pleasure to the children of the family,” Jennie Stephenson recalled thirty years after Appomattox, “as well as to the servants.” The Christmas merriment she described on her father’s Virginia farm typifies depictions of year-end festivities in white southern memoirs. “Father was a firm, but a kind Master,” she insisted, and no moment proved her point better than the holidays. Throughout the long year of work and worry that brought the plantation to harvest time, Charles Friend had guided his servants as a true paternalist, finding his “right to own slaves” in the Bible but feeling the “responsibility physically, morally, and spiritually” to lead them with the good government of a father. He ordered labor – and perhaps lashes too – but also bestowed blessings on marriages, provided medical services, and turned his charges toward church on Sundays. At the end of this year-long “fatiguing duty,” the master’s bounty knew no ebb. Slaves roused the white family early, awaiting a sumptuous morning feast. The “eager faces” of mothers and their “tots” milling around the Big House, marveling at gifts of “lace collars, coffee-mills, and rattles” formed a “bright picture” in memory. Celebration would last throughout the day, Stephenson recalled fondly, until evening’s rituals began. In the “twilight ... all who took part in the harvest” gathered round the door “for money from Master.” Among Stephenson’s dearest memories was the sight of her father “bending over a chair filled with piles of coin, with a list of names in one hand, and with the other counting the money.” While she saw evidence of generosity in this happy scene at day’s end – mothers admiring their tatting, men counting their money, children “somer-sault[ing] on the grass” – more complex calculations were always at work. From the “bright picture” of gifts given in morning to the shadowed scene of payment at night, a politicized spectrum of exchange bookended the day. Embedded within this sentimental portrait of masterly beneficence, Stephenson highlighted her family’s role on this occasion – and in all things – not just as gift givers, but as their slaves’ “white auditors.”
1 - Money and Moralism
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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What do slaves want with money? What good can it possibly do them?
So asked a contributor to the Southern Cultivator in April 1860. With Republicans ascendant and secession agitation reaching fever pitch, the author, A. T. Goodloe, struggled to maintain some semblance of order on his plantation. He feared his slaves, with cash in hand, would wander “wherever their inclination may lead them” and that money would end up in the hands of proprietors of local dram shops, “road-side groceries,” and other “filthy institutions.” Anxious to maintain a productive, obedient, and healthy workforce, Goodloe viewed these venues of consumption as dangerous temptations and sought to remove opportunities for their patronage. Yet, despite these fears, Goodloe remained cognizant of the needs and, more importantly, material desires of his bondpeople. Bestowing extra goods was a way to allay long-term discontent and keep his people close to home.
But what, exactly, did his slaves want? How could he be sure he was fulfilling their material desires so as to prevent them from seeking opportunities outside of his control? Goodloe shared his solution with readers of the Southern Cultivator. He urged the slaveholder to “[t]ake his negroes to the nearest dry goods store, or send the overseer with them (do not let them go alone) and let them select such things as suit their fancies, within a certain limit, and pay for the goods himself; always rewarding more liberally those that have performed their duty best.” Even though slaveholders differed in their management techniques and many likely scoffed at Goodloe’s liberality, the struggle to maintain an obedient workforce was universal and one often addressed through a process of negotiation and manipulation of slaves’ material wants, needs, and desires. Slaveholders’ journals and prescriptive literature are filled with thoughtful and often anxious considerations about material exchange between master and slave.
4 - Black Markets
- Kathleen M. Hilliard, Iowa State University
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Richard Eppes was a meticulous man. A proponent of agricultural reform and a medical doctor, the Virginia slaveholder managed three tidewater grain plantations, overseeing a workforce that, by the beginning of the Civil War, had grown to over a hundred slaves. In addition to plantation journals and account books, Eppes kept a diary, memorializing the mundane details of daily management and expounding his own theories of profitability and social control. In particular, Eppes expressed concern for the moral character of his workforce and outlined regulations that, he thought, best promoted its welfare. In what was an annual tradition, Richard Eppes gathered slaves together for a prepared address, imparted the plantation rules, reviewed the community’s accomplishments and failings, and outlined his vision for the upcoming year. Eppes explained to his slaves that he regarded them as “human beings possessing faculties similar to our own and capable of distinguishing between right and wrong” and expected them to obey the laws he decreed. The first, and presumably most important regulation addressed the problem of theft: “You shall not steal from your master, overseer, fellow servants, or neighbors.” The first offense merited ten strokes of the whip; a second (occurring in the same month), twenty-five strokes; and a third, thirty-nine lashes and a shaved head.
But this simple declaration of laws and expectations often failed to suffice and, in 1853, Eppes took special care to address the issue of theft among members of the gathered community. He said:
I have not spoken of stealing, for I hope we never shall hear any more of that on this plantation as you ought to know. It is to the interest of one & all of you to keep out of such scrapes but I have to ask of you if a chicken or an egg or your provision is stolen, to go and tell Mr. Rogers immediately and he will try and find out the rogue and he will surely be punished. Should we loose hogs sheep corn or other things off the plantation and the rogue cannot be detected or found out then the whole population must suffer, a day for a hog or sheep or barrel of corn, of your Christmas hollodays will be taken off until we have taken the whole when we will find out some other punishment.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
-
- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
- Print publication:
- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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