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Equivalency of the diagnostic accuracy of the PHQ-8 and PHQ-9: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis – ERRATUM
- Yin Wu, Brooke Levis, Kira E. Riehm, Nazanin Saadat, Alexander W. Levis, Marleine Azar, Danielle B. Rice, Jill Boruff, Pim Cuijpers, Simon Gilbody, John P.A. Ioannidis, Lorie A. Kloda, Dean McMillan, Scott B. Patten, Ian Shrier, Roy C. Ziegelstein, Dickens H. Akena, Bruce Arroll, Liat Ayalon, Hamid R. Baradaran, Murray Baron, Charles H. Bombardier, Peter Butterworth, Gregory Carter, Marcos H. Chagas, Juliana C. N. Chan, Rushina Cholera, Yeates Conwell, Janneke M. de Manvan Ginkel, Jesse R. Fann, Felix H. Fischer, Daniel Fung, Bizu Gelaye, Felicity Goodyear-Smith, Catherine G. Greeno, Brian J. Hall, Patricia A. Harrison, Martin Härter, Ulrich Hegerl, Leanne Hides, Stevan E. Hobfoll, Marie Hudson, Thomas Hyphantis, Masatoshi Inagaki, Nathalie Jetté, Mohammad E. Khamseh, Kim M. Kiely, Yunxin Kwan, Femke Lamers, Shen-Ing Liu, Manote Lotrakul, Sonia R. Loureiro, Bernd Löwe, Anthony McGuire, Sherina Mohd-Sidik, Tiago N. Munhoz, Kumiko Muramatsu, Flávia L. Osório, Vikram Patel, Brian W. Pence, Philippe Persoons, Angelo Picardi, Katrin Reuter, Alasdair G. Rooney, Iná S. Santos, Juwita Shaaban, Abbey Sidebottom, Adam Simning, Lesley Stafford, Sharon Sung, Pei Lin Lynnette Tan, Alyna Turner, Henk C. van Weert, Jennifer White, Mary A. Whooley, Kirsty Winkley, Mitsuhiko Yamada, Andrea Benedetti, Brett D. Thombs
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- Journal:
- Psychological Medicine / Volume 50 / Issue 16 / December 2020
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 19 August 2019, p. 2816
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Equivalency of the diagnostic accuracy of the PHQ-8 and PHQ-9: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis
- Yin Wu, Brooke Levis, Kira E. Riehm, Nazanin Saadat, Alexander W. Levis, Marleine Azar, Danielle B. Rice, Jill Boruff, Pim Cuijpers, Simon Gilbody, John P.A. Ioannidis, Lorie A. Kloda, Dean McMillan, Scott B. Patten, Ian Shrier, Roy C. Ziegelstein, Dickens H. Akena, Bruce Arroll, Liat Ayalon, Hamid R. Baradaran, Murray Baron, Charles H. Bombardier, Peter Butterworth, Gregory Carter, Marcos H. Chagas, Juliana C. N. Chan, Rushina Cholera, Yeates Conwell, Janneke M. de Man-van Ginkel, Jesse R. Fann, Felix H. Fischer, Daniel Fung, Bizu Gelaye, Felicity Goodyear-Smith, Catherine G. Greeno, Brian J. Hall, Patricia A. Harrison, Martin Härter, Ulrich Hegerl, Leanne Hides, Stevan E. Hobfoll, Marie Hudson, Thomas Hyphantis, Masatoshi Inagaki, Nathalie Jetté, Mohammad E. Khamseh, Kim M. Kiely, Yunxin Kwan, Femke Lamers, Shen-Ing Liu, Manote Lotrakul, Sonia R. Loureiro, Bernd Löwe, Anthony McGuire, Sherina Mohd-Sidik, Tiago N. Munhoz, Kumiko Muramatsu, Flávia L. Osório, Vikram Patel, Brian W. Pence, Philippe Persoons, Angelo Picardi, Katrin Reuter, Alasdair G. Rooney, Iná S. Santos, Juwita Shaaban, Abbey Sidebottom, Adam Simning, Lesley Stafford, Sharon Sung, Pei Lin Lynnette Tan, Alyna Turner, Henk C. van Weert, Jennifer White, Mary A. Whooley, Kirsty Winkley, Mitsuhiko Yamada, Andrea Benedetti, Brett D. Thombs
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- Journal:
- Psychological Medicine / Volume 50 / Issue 8 / June 2020
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 12 July 2019, pp. 1368-1380
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Background
Item 9 of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) queries about thoughts of death and self-harm, but not suicidality. Although it is sometimes used to assess suicide risk, most positive responses are not associated with suicidality. The PHQ-8, which omits Item 9, is thus increasingly used in research. We assessed equivalency of total score correlations and the diagnostic accuracy to detect major depression of the PHQ-8 and PHQ-9.
MethodsWe conducted an individual patient data meta-analysis. We fit bivariate random-effects models to assess diagnostic accuracy.
Results16 742 participants (2097 major depression cases) from 54 studies were included. The correlation between PHQ-8 and PHQ-9 scores was 0.996 (95% confidence interval 0.996 to 0.996). The standard cutoff score of 10 for the PHQ-9 maximized sensitivity + specificity for the PHQ-8 among studies that used a semi-structured diagnostic interview reference standard (N = 27). At cutoff 10, the PHQ-8 was less sensitive by 0.02 (−0.06 to 0.00) and more specific by 0.01 (0.00 to 0.01) among those studies (N = 27), with similar results for studies that used other types of interviews (N = 27). For all 54 primary studies combined, across all cutoffs, the PHQ-8 was less sensitive than the PHQ-9 by 0.00 to 0.05 (0.03 at cutoff 10), and specificity was within 0.01 for all cutoffs (0.00 to 0.01).
ConclusionsPHQ-8 and PHQ-9 total scores were similar. Sensitivity may be minimally reduced with the PHQ-8, but specificity is similar.
Probability of major depression diagnostic classification using semi-structured versus fully structured diagnostic interviews
- Brooke Levis, Andrea Benedetti, Kira E. Riehm, Nazanin Saadat, Alexander W. Levis, Marleine Azar, Danielle B. Rice, Matthew J. Chiovitti, Tatiana A. Sanchez, Pim Cuijpers, Simon Gilbody, John P. A. Ioannidis, Lorie A. Kloda, Dean McMillan, Scott B. Patten, Ian Shrier, Russell J. Steele, Roy C. Ziegelstein, Dickens H. Akena, Bruce Arroll, Liat Ayalon, Hamid R. Baradaran, Murray Baron, Anna Beraldi, Charles H. Bombardier, Peter Butterworth, Gregory Carter, Marcos H. Chagas, Juliana C. N. Chan, Rushina Cholera, Neerja Chowdhary, Kerrie Clover, Yeates Conwell, Janneke M. de Man-van Ginkel, Jaime Delgadillo, Jesse R. Fann, Felix H. Fischer, Benjamin Fischler, Daniel Fung, Bizu Gelaye, Felicity Goodyear-Smith, Catherine G. Greeno, Brian J. Hall, John Hambridge, Patricia A. Harrison, Ulrich Hegerl, Leanne Hides, Stevan E. Hobfoll, Marie Hudson, Thomas Hyphantis, Masatoshi Inagaki, Khalida Ismail, Nathalie Jetté, Mohammad E. Khamseh, Kim M. Kiely, Femke Lamers, Shen-Ing Liu, Manote Lotrakul, Sonia R. Loureiro, Bernd Löwe, Laura Marsh, Anthony McGuire, Sherina Mohd Sidik, Tiago N. Munhoz, Kumiko Muramatsu, Flávia L. Osório, Vikram Patel, Brian W. Pence, Philippe Persoons, Angelo Picardi, Alasdair G. Rooney, Iná S. Santos, Juwita Shaaban, Abbey Sidebottom, Adam Simning, Lesley Stafford, Sharon Sung, Pei Lin Lynnette Tan, Alyna Turner, Christina M. van der Feltz-Cornelis, Henk C. van Weert, Paul A. Vöhringer, Jennifer White, Mary A. Whooley, Kirsty Winkley, Mitsuhiko Yamada, Yuying Zhang, Brett D. Thombs
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- Journal:
- The British Journal of Psychiatry / Volume 212 / Issue 6 / June 2018
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 02 May 2018, pp. 377-385
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- June 2018
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Background
Different diagnostic interviews are used as reference standards for major depression classification in research. Semi-structured interviews involve clinical judgement, whereas fully structured interviews are completely scripted. The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI), a brief fully structured interview, is also sometimes used. It is not known whether interview method is associated with probability of major depression classification.
AimsTo evaluate the association between interview method and odds of major depression classification, controlling for depressive symptom scores and participant characteristics.
MethodData collected for an individual participant data meta-analysis of Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) diagnostic accuracy were analysed and binomial generalised linear mixed models were fit.
ResultsA total of 17 158 participants (2287 with major depression) from 57 primary studies were analysed. Among fully structured interviews, odds of major depression were higher for the MINI compared with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (odds ratio (OR) = 2.10; 95% CI = 1.15–3.87). Compared with semi-structured interviews, fully structured interviews (MINI excluded) were non-significantly more likely to classify participants with low-level depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 scores ≤6) as having major depression (OR = 3.13; 95% CI = 0.98–10.00), similarly likely for moderate-level symptoms (PHQ-9 scores 7–15) (OR = 0.96; 95% CI = 0.56–1.66) and significantly less likely for high-level symptoms (PHQ-9 scores ≥16) (OR = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.26–0.97).
ConclusionsThe MINI may identify more people as depressed than the CIDI, and semi-structured and fully structured interviews may not be interchangeable methods, but these results should be replicated.
Declaration of interestDrs Jetté and Patten declare that they received a grant, outside the submitted work, from the Hotchkiss Brain Institute, which was jointly funded by the Institute and Pfizer. Pfizer was the original sponsor of the development of the PHQ-9, which is now in the public domain. Dr Chan is a steering committee member or consultant of Astra Zeneca, Bayer, Lilly, MSD and Pfizer. She has received sponsorships and honorarium for giving lectures and providing consultancy and her affiliated institution has received research grants from these companies. Dr Hegerl declares that within the past 3 years, he was an advisory board member for Lundbeck, Servier and Otsuka Pharma; a consultant for Bayer Pharma; and a speaker for Medice Arzneimittel, Novartis, and Roche Pharma, all outside the submitted work. Dr Inagaki declares that he has received grants from Novartis Pharma, lecture fees from Pfizer, Mochida, Shionogi, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma, Daiichi-Sankyo, Meiji Seika and Takeda, and royalties from Nippon Hyoron Sha, Nanzando, Seiwa Shoten, Igaku-shoin and Technomics, all outside of the submitted work. Dr Yamada reports personal fees from Meiji Seika Pharma Co., Ltd., MSD K.K., Asahi Kasei Pharma Corporation, Seishin Shobo, Seiwa Shoten Co., Ltd., Igaku-shoin Ltd., Chugai Igakusha and Sentan Igakusha, all outside the submitted work. All other authors declare no competing interests. No funder had any role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis and interpretation of the data; preparation, review or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. 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- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
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- 05 August 2015
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- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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- By Dor Abrahamson, Jerry Andriessen, Roger Azevedo, Michael Baker, Ryan Baker, Sasha Barab, Carl Bereiter, Susan Bridges, Mario Carretero, Carol K. K. Chan, Clark A. Chinn, Paul Cobb, Allan Collins, Kevin Crowley, Elizabeth A. Davis, Chris Dede, Sharon J. Derry, Andrea A. diSessa, Michael Eisenberg, Yrjö Engeström, Noel Enyedy, Barry J. Fishman, Ricki Goldman, James G. Greeno, Erica Rosenfeld Halverson, Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver, Michael J. Jacobson, Sanna Järvelä, Yasmin B. Kafai, Yael Kali, Manu Kapur, Paul A. Kirschner, Karen Knutson, Timothy Koschmann, Joseph S. Krajcik, Carol D. Lee, Peter Lee, Robb Lindgren, Jingyan Lu, Richard E. Mayer, Naomi Miyake, Na’ilah Suad Nasir, Mitchell J. Nathan, Narcis Pares, Roy Pea, James W. Pellegrino, William R. Penuel, Palmyre Pierroux, Brian J. Reiser, K. Ann Renninger, Ann S. Rosebery, R. Keith Sawyer, Marlene Scardamalia, Anna Sfard, Mike Sharples, Kimberly M. Sheridan, Bruce L. Sherin, Namsoo Shin, George Siemens, Peter Smagorinsky, Nancy Butler Songer, James P. Spillane, Kurt Squire, Gerry Stahl, Constance Steinkuehler, Reed Stevens, Daniel Suthers, Iris Tabak, Beth Warren, Uri Wilensky, Philip H. Winne, Carmen Zahn
- Edited by R. Keith Sawyer, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
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- The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences
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- 05 November 2014
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- 17 November 2014, pp xv-xviii
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- By Aakash Agarwala, Linda S. Aglio, Rae M. Allain, Paul D. Allen, Houman Amirfarzan, Yasodananda Kumar Areti, Amit Asopa, Edwin G. Avery, Patricia R. Bachiller, Angela M. Bader, Rana Badr, Sibinka Bajic, David J. Baker, Sheila R. Barnett, Rena Beckerly, Lorenzo Berra, Walter Bethune, Sascha S. Beutler, Tarun Bhalla, Edward A. Bittner, Jonathan D. Bloom, Alina V. Bodas, Lina M. Bolanos-Diaz, Ruma R. Bose, Jan Boublik, John P. Broadnax, Jason C. Brookman, Meredith R. Brooks, Roland Brusseau, Ethan O. Bryson, Linda A. Bulich, Kenji Butterfield, William R. Camann, Denise M. Chan, Theresa S. Chang, Jonathan E. Charnin, Mark Chrostowski, Fred Cobey, Adam B. Collins, Mercedes A. Concepcion, Christopher W. Connor, Bronwyn Cooper, Jeffrey B. Cooper, Martha Cordoba-Amorocho, Stephen B. Corn, Darin J. Correll, Gregory J. Crosby, Lisa J. Crossley, Deborah J. Culley, Tomas Cvrk, Michael N. D'Ambra, Michael Decker, Daniel F. Dedrick, Mark Dershwitz, Francis X. Dillon, Pradeep Dinakar, Alimorad G. Djalali, D. John Doyle, Lambertus Drop, Ian F. Dunn, Theodore E. Dushane, Sunil Eappen, Thomas Edrich, Jesse M. Ehrenfeld, Jason M. Erlich, Lucinda L. Everett, Elliott S. Farber, Khaldoun Faris, Eddy M. Feliz, Massimo Ferrigno, Richard S. Field, Michael G. Fitzsimons, Hugh L. Flanagan Jr., Vladimir Formanek, Amanda A. Fox, John A. Fox, Gyorgy Frendl, Tanja S. Frey, Samuel M. Galvagno Jr., Edward R. Garcia, Jonathan D. Gates, Cosmin Gauran, Brian J. Gelfand, Simon Gelman, Alexander C. Gerhart, Peter Gerner, Omid Ghalambor, Christopher J. Gilligan, Christian D. Gonzalez, Noah E. Gordon, William B. Gormley, Thomas J. Graetz, Wendy L. Gross, Amit Gupta, James P. Hardy, Seetharaman Hariharan, Miriam Harnett, Philip M. Hartigan, Joaquim M. Havens, Bishr Haydar, Stephen O. Heard, James L. Helstrom, David L. Hepner, McCallum R. Hoyt, Robert N. Jamison, Karinne Jervis, Stephanie B. Jones, Swaminathan Karthik, Richard M. Kaufman, Shubjeet Kaur, Lee A. Kearse Jr., John C. Keel, Scott D. Kelley, Albert H. Kim, Amy L. Kim, Grace Y. Kim, Robert J. Klickovich, Robert M. Knapp, Bhavani S. Kodali, Rahul Koka, Alina Lazar, Laura H. Leduc, Stanley Leeson, Lisa R. Leffert, Scott A. LeGrand, Patricio Leyton, J. Lance Lichtor, John Lin, Alvaro A. Macias, Karan Madan, Sohail K. Mahboobi, Devi Mahendran, Christine Mai, Sayeed Malek, S. Rao Mallampati, Thomas J. Mancuso, Ramon Martin, Matthew C. Martinez, J. A. Jeevendra Martyn, Kai Matthes, Tommaso Mauri, Mary Ellen McCann, Shannon S. McKenna, Dennis J. McNicholl, Abdel-Kader Mehio, Thor C. Milland, Tonya L. K. Miller, John D. Mitchell, K. Annette Mizuguchi, Naila Moghul, David R. Moss, Ross J. Musumeci, Naveen Nathan, Ju-Mei Ng, Liem C. Nguyen, Ervant Nishanian, Martina Nowak, Ala Nozari, Michael Nurok, Arti Ori, Rafael A. Ortega, Amy J. Ortman, David Oxman, Arvind Palanisamy, Carlo Pancaro, Lisbeth Lopez Pappas, Benjamin Parish, Samuel Park, Deborah S. Pederson, Beverly K. Philip, James H. Philip, Silvia Pivi, Stephen D. Pratt, Douglas E. Raines, Stephen L. Ratcliff, James P. Rathmell, J. Taylor Reed, Elizabeth M. Rickerson, Selwyn O. Rogers Jr., Thomas M. Romanelli, William H. Rosenblatt, Carl E. Rosow, Edgar L. Ross, J. Victor Ryckman, Mônica M. Sá Rêgo, Nicholas Sadovnikoff, Warren S. Sandberg, Annette Y. Schure, B. Scott Segal, Navil F. Sethna, Swapneel K. Shah, Shaheen F. Shaikh, Fred E. Shapiro, Torin D. Shear, Prem S. Shekar, Stanton K. Shernan, Naomi Shimizu, Douglas C. Shook, Kamal K. Sikka, Pankaj K. Sikka, David A. Silver, Jeffrey H. Silverstein, Emily A. Singer, Ken Solt, Spiro G. Spanakis, Wolfgang Steudel, Matthias Stopfkuchen-Evans, Michael P. Storey, Gary R. Strichartz, Balachundhar Subramaniam, Wariya Sukhupragarn, John Summers, Shine Sun, Eswar Sundar, Sugantha Sundar, Neelakantan Sunder, Faraz Syed, Usha B. Tedrow, Nelson L. Thaemert, George P. Topulos, Lawrence C. Tsen, Richard D. Urman, Charles A. Vacanti, Francis X. Vacanti, Joshua C. Vacanti, Assia Valovska, Ivan T. Valovski, Mary Ann Vann, Susan Vassallo, Anasuya Vasudevan, Kamen V. Vlassakov, Gian Paolo Volpato, Essi M. Vulli, J. Matthias Walz, Jingping Wang, James F. Watkins, Maxwell Weinmann, Sharon L. Wetherall, Mallory Williams, Sarah H. Wiser, Zhiling Xiong, Warren M. Zapol, Jie Zhou
- Edited by Charles Vacanti, Scott Segal, Pankaj Sikka, Richard Urman
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- Essential Clinical Anesthesia
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- 05 January 2012
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4 - Discourse and lexis
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- Hong Kong English
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- Edinburgh University Press
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- 12 September 2012
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- 31 August 2010, pp 68-93
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Summary
Discourse features in Hong Kong English have not received much attention; for example, Bolton (2002a) includes chapters which deal with phonology (Hung 2000, reprinted in Bolton 2002a), grammar (Gisborne 2000, reprinted in Bolton 2002a) and lexis (Benson 2000, reprinted in Bolton 2002a), but there is no chapter on discourse. Nor is there much discussion in Bolton (2003), Kachru (2005) or Kachru and Nelson (2006), the latter two works looking at the broader context of Asian Englishes. One recent attempt to fill this gap is Wong (2007), which is an analysis of the forms and functions of question tags in the International Corpus of English, Hong Kong component (ICE-HK). Added to this are a number of corpus-based studies which compare the use of English discourse features between Hong Kong speakers and native speakers (Cheng and Warren 2001a, 2001b; Fung and Carter 2007b), but these studies do not presume a distinctive variety of Hong Kong English, generally referring to Hong Kong speakers as non-native speakers (NNS) or students, and their findings are not always consistent with our data. It may be more useful, therefore, to look at the discourse features which Deterding (2007) discusses in relation to Singapore English, as these may be relevant to Hong Kong English, given common substrate influence from Cantonese.
Compared with discourse, there has been more discussion of vocabulary in Hong Kong English; see for example Benson (2000), Bolton (2003), Carless (1995), Chow (2001), Cummings (2007) and Taylor (1989). These studies draw their data from certain genres or kinds of discourse.
Hong Kong English
- Jane Setter, Cathy S. P. Wong, Brian H. S. Chan
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- 31 August 2010
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This volume provides an overview of all aspects of Hong Kong English in a style designed for undergraduates and general readers. As a former British colony, Hong Kong used English as the language of government, law and education in the early days of colon
7 - Annotated bibliography
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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This chapter starts by surveying general works on Hong Kong English and then goes on to consider specific books and key articles in each area.
General works on Hong Kong English
Both Platt (1982) and McArthur (2002) provide a comprehensive overview of all the features of Hong Kong English with reference to the larger context of varieties of Asian Englishes, while Kirkpatrick's (2007) description is presented in terms of implications for international communication and pedagogy.
Pennington (1998b) is an edited volume of nineteen chapters, in which authors discuss the linguistic situation in Hong Kong in the run-up to the Handover in 1997, not all of them on Hong Kong English. Wright and Kelly-Holmes (1997) survey the changes in language use during this period.
Kingsley Bolton has published extensively on Hong Kong English. Examples of his work include Bolton (2003), which is a sociolinguistic history of Chinese Englishes, including English in Hong Kong, and Bolton (2002a), which draws together sixteen chapters from different authors on linguistic and literary topics, including information on finding resources for analysing the variety, and ends with a chapter pondering the future for Hong Kong English.
For a historical perspective on language education in Hong Kong, see Lord and Cheng (1987).
Phonetics and phonology
For a brief overview of some of the features of the phonology of Hong Kong English, see Bolton and Kwok (1990).
1 - Geography, demography and cultural factors
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- Hong Kong English
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- 12 September 2012
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There is no doubt that Hong Kong is seen as one of the most exciting cities in the world. The view across the harbour at night looking towards the neon lights, a silhouette of a junk against the setting sun, or the hubbub of lively business and commerce in a 24-hour city are quintessential images conjured up in the mind when one thinks of this exotic location. The self-portrait of Hong Kong as presented on the official government internet website describes it as ‘a vibrant city, and a major gateway to China’. Indeed, the geographic location of Hong Kong has unequivocally placed it as an entry port to greater China. The historical development of the city as well as the cultural composition of its population have provided the dynamics necessary for Hong Kong to thrive as a cosmopolitan urban centre in the Pearl River Delta region.
Hong Kong, a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), is located adjacent to the Pearl River Delta, in the south-eastern region of China's Guangdong province, facing the South China Sea. Contrary to popular belief, Hong Kong is not just a single island territory comprising a built-up urban cityscape, but includes three major parts: Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula and the New Territories. It is replete with country parks, sandy beaches and outlying islands large and small. Along the northern part of the New Territories is the border between Hong Kong and China. South of the New Territories is Boundary Street, which used to mark the boundary between Kowloon and the New Territories.
6 - Hong Kong English: a sociolinguistic history
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- Hong Kong English
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- Edinburgh University Press
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- 12 September 2012
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- 31 August 2010, pp 103-116
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The interest in Hong Kong English as a variety is a relatively recent phenomenon, and its status is very much under dispute (see section 6.4 below). Because of this, there has been little, if any, documentation of historical language change. Empirically, there have been few studies which describe the formal linguistic properties of Hong Kong English in great detail (in comparison with, say, Singapore English); this, coupled with the emergent status of the variety, means it is virtually impossible to compare two datasets collected at different times for varietal differences. In addition, work on Hong Kong English, other than that which looks at it as a learner language, did not really start in earnest until Luke and Richards' groundbreaking research in 1982. Change, as far as Hong Kong English is concerned, has almost exclusively focused on the social status of English, or the changing status of English with reference to spoken Cantonese and written Standard Chinese in the Hong Kong context.
This chapter surveys the sociolinguistic history of English in Hong Kong. The description leads on to a discussion concerning the emergence of Hong Kong English as a new variety. This is intended to contextualise the preceding chapters of the book, which primarily describe the formal linguistic aspects of Hong Kong English.
English in pre-colonial Hong Kong (pre-1842)
Probably the most comprehensive description of the early development of English in Hong Kong is to be found in Bolton (2003), specifically chapter 3, in which he surveys the situation between the mid-seventeenth and twentieth centuries.
8 - Transcripts for the data from our speakers
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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2 - Phonetics and phonology
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- Hong Kong English
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- 12 September 2012
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- 31 August 2010, pp 12-42
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Hong Kong English is an emergent new variety and, as such, its status as either a legitimate variety or learner interlanguage is under dispute. Some writers prefer to discuss phonological aspects of Hong Kong English in terms of error when compared to varieties such as British or American English (see, for example, Stibbard 2004; Chan 2006; Chan and Li 2000). This chapter – and, indeed, this book – does not take this view, preferring to describe and evaluate Hong Kong English pronunciation on its own terms, and in terms of difference from other accents rather than deficiency. However, it should be recognised that, as it is an emergent new variety, features of Hong Kong English such as phonology are not always stable, and that there is wide variation amongst speakers in both intelligibility and similarity to other accents and varieties. It is therefore necessary to talk in terms of tendencies in phonology, rather than to assume all speakers share the same characteristics.
The pronunciation of English in Hong Kong varies along a continuum from native-like British English Received Pronunciation (RP) and/or General American accent features to virtual unintelligibility outside of the Hong Kong environment. What may be thought of as the typical Hong Kong English accent (see, for example, Deterding et al. 2008; Hung 2000; Peng and Setter 2000), spoken by educated individuals who have not spent much, if any, time outside of Hong Kong, is clearly influenced by features of Cantonese phonology.
Acknowledgements
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- Hong Kong English
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- 31 August 2010, pp viii-viii
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Contents
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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5 - Code-switching
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- Hong Kong English
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- 12 September 2012
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- 31 August 2010, pp 94-102
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Frontmatter
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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Index
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- 31 August 2010, pp 175-182
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3 - Morphosyntax
- Jane Setter, University of Reading, Cathy S. P. Wong, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Brian H. S. Chan, The Department of English The University of Macau
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- Hong Kong English
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- 31 August 2010, pp 43-67
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As is the case with phonology, many of the morphosyntactic features in Hong Kong English reflect the interaction between English and Cantonese, two languages very different in terms of their morphological and grammatical structures.
Like other Chinese dialects, Cantonese is not morphologically rich. There are few inflectional and derivational markings in Cantonese (Matthews and Yip 1994: 31). When compared to English, Cantonese has no tense inflections on the verbs; nor are there any number or gender inflections on the nouns. As a result, the English morphological markings are realised in four different ways in Hong Kong English. One typical feature is the simplification of the English morphology (Budge 1989). For example, the suffix -s is omitted from verbs with third person singular subjects, as in ‘he give all the picture to you; he like de boy better den de girl’ (Platt 1982: 409). The second is the optional use of suffixes such as the -s for plural nouns. For example, in the sentence ‘where de movie all come from’ (Platt 1982: 409), the noun ‘movie’ is not marked for plural. In the noun phrase ‘many gardens and many famous place’ there are two noun phrases each headed by a plural noun. However, the first plural noun has the suffix -s while the second one does not. Third, the past tense is not marked, either. Platt (1982: 410) has the following examples reporting past events: ‘Mandarin, I learn it privately’ and ‘I don't learn at secondary school’. The fourth morphological feature that typifies Hong Kong English is morphologically doubly marked items such as ‘more better’ or ‘more richer’.