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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
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- 05 August 2015
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- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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- By Krista Adamek, Ana Luisa K. Albernaz, J. Marcio Ayres†, Andrew J. Baker, Karen L. Bales, Adrian A. Barnett, Christopher Barton, John M. Bates, Jennie Becker, Bruna M. Bezerra, Júlio César Bicca-Marques, Richard Bodmer, Jean P. Boubli, Mark Bowler, Sarah A. Boyle, Christini Barbosa Caselli, Janice Chism, Elena P. Cunningham, José Maria C. da Silva, Lesa C. Davies, Nayara de Alcântara Cardoso, Manuella A. de Souza, Stella de la Torre, Ana Gabriela de Luna, Thomas R. Defler, Anthony Di Fiore, Eduardo Fernandez-Duque, Stephen F. Ferrari, Wilsea M.B. Figueiredo-Ready, Tracy Frampton, Paul A. Garber, Brian W. Grafton, L. Tremaine Gregory, Maria L. Harada, Amy Harrison-Levine, Walter C. Hartwig, Stefanie Heiduck, Eckhard W. Heymann, André Hirsch, Leandro Jerusalinsky, Gareth Jones, Richard F. Kay, Martin M. Kowalewski, Shawn M. Lehman, Laura Marsh, Jesús Martinez, William A. Mason, Hope Matthews, Wynlyn McBride, Shona McCann-Wood, W. Scott McGraw, D. Jeffrey Meldrum, Sally P. Mendoza, Nohelia Mercado, Russell A. Mittermeier, Mirjam N. Nadjafzadeh, Marilyn A. Norconk, Robert Gary Norman, Marcela Oliveira, Marcelo M. Oliveira, Maria Juliana Ospina Rodríguez, Erwin Palacios, Suzanne Palminteri, Liliam P. Pinto, Marcio Port-Carvalho, Leila Porter, Carlos Portillo-Quintero, George Powell, Ghillean T. Prance, Rodrigo C. Printes, Pablo Puertas, P. Kirsten Pullen, Helder L. Queiroz, Luis Reginaldo R. Rodrigues, Adriana Rodríguez, Alfred L. Rosenberger, Anthony B. Rylands, Ricardo R. Santos, Horacio Schneider, Eleonore Z.F. Setz, Suleima S.B. Silva, José S. Silva Júnior, Andrew T. Smith, Marcelo C. Sousa, Antonio S. Souto, Wilson R. Spironello, Masanaru Takai, Marcelo F. Tejedor, Cynthia L. Thompson, Diego G. Tirira, Raul Tupayachi, Bernardo Urbani, Liza M. Veiga, Marianela Velilla, João Valsecchi, Jean-Christophe Vié, Tatiana M. Vieira, Suzanne E. Walker-Pacheco, Rob Wallace, Patricia C. Wright, Charles E. Zartman
- Edited by Liza M. Veiga, Universidade Federal do Pará, Brazil, Adrian A. Barnett, Roehampton University, London, Stephen F. Ferrari, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Brazil, Marilyn A. Norconk, Kent State University, Ohio
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- Evolutionary Biology and Conservation of Titis, Sakis and Uacaris
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- 05 April 2013
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- 11 April 2013, pp xii-xv
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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Use of Geobotanical Maps and Automated Mapping Techniques to Examine Cumulative Impacts in the Prudhoe Bay Oilfield, Alaska
- Donald A. Walker, Patrick J. Webber, Marilyn D. Walker, Nancy D. Lederer, Rosa H. Meehan, Earl A. Nordstrand
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- Journal:
- Environmental Conservation / Volume 13 / Issue 2 / Summer 1986
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 24 August 2009, pp. 149-160
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A comprehensive approach to the problem of examining impacts on tundra landscapes is presented, using the Prudhoe Bay oilfield as a model. Development of the oilfield is documented, utilizing a series of ‘historical’ disturbance maps for the period 1949–83. Cumulative development of the entire field was mapped at a scale of 1:24,000, and an intensely developed portion of the field was mapped at 1:6,000, using an integrated geobotanical and historical disturbance map (IGHDM). The IGHDM data were automated, and a series of maps was made which depict a variety of information—including geobotany of the area as of 1949, and the historical sequence of development from 1968 to 1983.
Towards developing general models of usability with PARADISE
- MARILYN WALKER, CANDACE KAMM, DIANE LITMAN
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- Journal:
- Natural Language Engineering / Volume 6 / Issue 3-4 / September 2000
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 26 March 2001, pp. 363-377
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The design of methods for performance evaluation is a major open research issue in the area of spoken language dialogue systems. This paper presents the PARADISE methodology for developing predictive models of spoken dialogue performance, and shows how to evaluate the predictive power and generalizability of such models. To illustrate the methodology, we develop a number of models for predicting system usability (as measured by user satisfaction), based on the application of PARADISE to experimental data from three different spoken dialogue systems. We then measure the extent to which the models generalize across different systems, different experimental conditions, and different user populations, by testing models trained on a subset of the corpus against a test set of dialogues. The results show that the models generalize well across the three systems, and are thus a first approximation towards a general performance model of system usability.
Part 1 - Setting the scene
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
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- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
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- 27 September 2000, pp 1-2
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6 - Unemployment institutions
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
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- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 77-92
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Summary
Summary
Labour market and social security policies changed radically between 1971 and 1999, in ways that were often explicitly designed to influence the size of the unemployed caseload. Small-scale training and work experience schemes introduced in the 1970s were massively expanded in the 1980s, to provide surrogate employment and reduce the claimant count. For a period, some unemployed claimants were financially encouraged to leave the labour market.
Resources devoted to training were then reduced, while new measures to tighten the eligibility conditions for benefit helped to support the emphasis on flexible job search while also reducing expenditure and claimant numbers. In 1996, with the introduction of Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA), benefit receipt was made conditional on signing and following an agreement. This strategy is now complemented by the Labour government's commitment to offer quality training and work experience, obligatory for some groups, through New Deal welfare to work programmes. These policies appear to have reduced claimant unemployment in the context of a growing economy.
A radical shift in the ratio of means-tested to insurance-based support for unemployed claimants occurred as a result of policy changes and lengthening unemployment. This process was also fuelled by policies to increase rents for tenants in social housing, thereby increasing the Housing Benefit (HB) caseload.
Increased means testing focused policy attention on work incentives which, together with evidence of low pay, led to the introduction of in-work benefits for families in order, to adopt the rhetoric of the current government, ‘to make work pay’.
Labour market and social security policies, and the institutions to design and implement them, altered radically between 1971 and 1999. The process of change was inevitably shaped by a combination of factors in the policy domains – with new perceptions, policy goals and policy models – as well as developments in the labour market, discussed in Chapter 4. An understanding of these changes is important to any assessment of the impact of policy on the numbers of unemployed claimants. For a blow by blow account, the reader is directed to Clasen (1994); here a brief sketch has to suffice.
Government job creation and training
A Conservative government was in power in the early 1970s. Unemployment was still low although, at the time, half a million unemployed seemed high.
8 - Understanding trends in unemployment-related benefits
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
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- 27 September 2000, pp 103-106
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Summary
Summary
Unemployment caseloads have been driven upwards by de-industrialisation and by the priority given to the control of inflation over full employment as a policy goal.
Social security and labour market polices have sought to contain the growth in caseloads, initially by diverting people out of the labour market or into training in large numbers.
Subsequent tightening of the benefit regulations may have reduced the total claimant count by, perhaps, 350,000. It also shifted the balance of provision radically towards means-testing.
Concern about work incentives has led to the provision of in-work benefits that have created a new category of benefit recipient. In 1999 the number of employed people receiving means-tested benefits fell only a little short of the number receiving unemployment-related benefits.
Most recently, proactive welfare to work policies have been developed to reduce the unemployment caseload by providing assistance, training and work experience. Their long-term effectiveness remains to be established. In the short term they are reducing the claimant count by about 215,000.
Having reviewed the literature, what story can be told about the increased number of claims for unemployment-related benefits?
The growth in the number of claimants of unemployment-related benefits between 1971 and 1999 was the direct result of the de industrialisation of the British economy, a process that changed forever the nature of the labour market, added a new dynamic, and radically restructured the set of employment opportunities available (Figure 8.1). The impact of labour market changes was mediated by labour market and social security policies that themselves evolved in response to the new economic environment, and were guided by a varying mix of ideology and pragmatism. A shared understanding developed between successive governments that the goal of full employment had become unrealistic, and that high inflation was a worse evil than high unemployment. From the late 1980s onwards the common belief emerged that policies needed to accommodate the new needs of the flexible labour market.
Although throughout most of the period total employment continued to grow, jobs were lost in large numbers from the traditional manufacturing sectors and ‘replaced’ by service sector jobs, many of which were low paid and latterly part-time and short-term.
12 - Demography and benefits for disabled people
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 153-164
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Summary
Summary
Increased longevity and the acquisition of impairment in late old age are perhaps the major factors behind the increased caseloads of disability benefits claimed by people over retirement age.
Demographic trends have limited the growth in the number of people of working age claiming disability benefit, but appear to have been more than offset by increased ill-health and disability.
The increased prevalence of impairment may also reflect the advances in medical science that enable people to survive, albeit with some degree of impairment, and the higher incidence of poor health in certain areas and among people in the lower socio-economic groups.
The increased prevalence of certain health conditions, notably mental health problems, may also have added to caseloads.
Institutional changes, both within social security policy and implementation, and in policy interaction with other areas like health and employment, will have contributed to the growth in caseloads. However, the question remains whether the increasing numbers of recipients of disability benefits reflect a rise in numbers of people who have developed an impairment, or simply an artefact of the way that benefit rules have been framed and applied. For instance, how significant is the ageing population and worsening health? Certainly, since the chances of developing impairment increase with age, one might expect – other things being equal – an ageing population to be associated with a higher incidence of impairment. The difficulty is that other things are seldom equal and, as has already been discussed, social attitudes towards disability have changed markedly over the last 30 years, measurement has changed and improved, and people have possibly become more prepared to exercise their right to provision.
An ageing population
A key characteristic in the ageing of Britain's population since 1971 has been the 44% increase in the number of people/pensionable age, over a period when total population increased by less than 7% (Chapter 2). Not surprisingly, therefore, the most obvious impact of an ageing population can be seen in the increased numbers of people of pensionable age who are in receipt of benefits to cover the extra costs associated with disability (largely Attendance Allowance – the increase in numbers of older people continuing to receive Disability Living Allowance was considered in Chapter 11).
19 - Social security provisions for families and children
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
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- 27 September 2000, pp 227-236
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Summary
Summary
The number of families receiving financial assistance for their children was doubled in 1977 by replacing family tax allowances for the second and subsequent child by Child Benefit payable for all children.
A class of working families receiving means-tested benefit was created by the 1971 introduction of Family Income Supplement and by Rent Allowances and Rebates in 1972.
In 1998, lone parents constituted 49% of the 790,000 recipients of Family Credit, the successor to Family Income Supplement, that is, the year before it was replaced by Working Families Tax Credit.
New Deal for Lone Parents, a voluntary scheme offering advice and support to lone parents seeking work, may have reduced Income Support caseloads by more than 3% over an 18-month period.
The 1991 Child Support Act sought to ensure that non-resident parents – mostly men – financially supported their children, but many refused or were unable to do so.
Deregulation of rents and ending ‘bricks-and-mortar’ subsidies for housing increased the Housing Benefit caseload.
Britain has never had a Minister for the Family and the Minister for Women is a creation of the new Labour government. Nor does it have a coherent family policy, governments generally preferring not to intervene directly in family matters (Kammerman and Kahn, 1980). However, at various times, governments have accepted the fact that children increase the risk of families suffering poverty and have introduced policies to raise family incomes. They have also responded, if sometimes reluctantly, to social problems associated with new family forms, typically targeting specific population groups and relying on fiscal and benefit measures rather than promoting an explicit family policy.
It is apparent from earlier chapters that the growth in benefit claims from families with children was influenced by the activities of many social institutions other than social security: moral authorities including the church and other opinion leaders, the legal profession and employers were all agents of change. Space limits consideration in this chapter to key changes in social security policy that have impacted most directly on the numbers of parents and children receiving benefit.
Child Benefit and One Parent Benefit
The one single policy change that most increased the number of families receiving benefit was the introduction of Child Benefit in 1977.
Part 5 - Benefits for retirement
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
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- 27 September 2000, pp 243-244
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5 - Demography and unemployment
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 69-76
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Summary
Summary
Large cohorts of young people exacerbated already high unemployment in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Numbers have also been boosted by the increased employment participation of women, notably by mothers of young children.
In contrast, male employment rates fell substantially as, to a lesser extent, did those of lone parents. Older men were the worst affected. The economic inactivity rates for men aged 50-59 quadrupled, and rose to 57% among 60 to 64 year olds.
Even so, unemployment rates remained highest among young people and fell much less quickly than among other groups during periods of economic recovery. Unemployment among ethnic minority groups also fell comparatively slowly.
Whereas Chapter 4 was primarily concerned with changes in labour demand that have contributed to variations in the unemployed caseload, the focus in this chapter is on labour supply. It appears that, at certain points over the last 30 years, simple changes in demography have conspired to exacerbate the mismatch between the demand for and supply of labour.
Table 5.1 reveals that the working-age population grew by 13% between 1971 and 1998. Moreover, the growth in the number of people in the early part of their prime working years (namely between 30 and 44 years of age) was, at 36%, very much greater. The passage of this cohort through the labour market exacerbated the problems created by the downturn of the 1980s, since a subset of this cohort would have been aged 15-19 in 1981 when the recession began to bite. Table 5.1 confirms this, showing that the number of people in this age range increased by 23% between 1971 and 1981, while the number aged 20-29 increased by just 2%. Clearly a large cohort of new labour market entrants is likely to be much at risk of unemployment, even in the absence of a downturn in the economy, such as that which occurred in the 1980s.
Large cohorts also tend to pose significant constraints on the chances of career progression and wage growth through promotion for members of the cohort and those cohorts that follow later. This labour market cohort has, therefore, been doubly disadvantaged, and may face further difficulties in the immediate future, as large numbers of people approach the labour market vulnerability associated with late working life.
2 - Taking an overview
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 21-44
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Summary
Summary
The British economy has altered radically in the last three decades. While international trade in goods still exceeds that in services, employment in manufacturing has halved to just 15% of the total.
After eight years of economic growth, unemployment has fallen back markedly from the historic highs experienced in the early 1990s. Male employment remains at comparatively low levels, part-time employment has risen to 25% of the total and women now account for 45% of the workforce.
There is an increased financial premium on education and a polarisation in wage levels and between employment-rich households, with more than one worker, and employment-poor households, with none.
Population growth has been sluggish for 30 years but demands on the social security system have been increased by growth in the retired population, an almost threefold rise in the number of lone parents and a growing recognition of the needs of disabled people.
Spending on cash benefits has more than doubled in real terms since the early 1970s and now accounts for 30% of total public expenditure. Coverage is comprehensive and nationally uniform and comprises a mix of insurance, means-tested and other non-contributory schemes. Retirement pension is the most expensive element, accounting for 37% of the total, but means-tested schemes, which together absorb 32% of total expenditure, are more important than in continental Europe
Public support for the cash benefit system remains strong but, echoing political rhetoric, there is also concern about its possible disincentive effects and the existence of fraud. Benefit recipients themselves report financial hardship and a sense of shame associated with being a claimant.
A degree of consensus that employment is the principal defence against poverty has replaced outright ideological hostility towards the benefit system, evident among some politicians during the 1980s. Policies are currently being ‘modernised’ and made proactive so as to promote work for those who can and support for those who cannot.
The simple model introduced in the last chapter groups the myriad influences driving social security and social assistance caseloads into four: those relating to the economy, demography, institutions, and beliefs.
The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Benefit Receipt in Britain
- Robert Walker
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000
-
Over the last three decades, Britain has witnessed an unprecedented rise in the number of people receiving welfare benefits that has provoked fears of a growing underclass and mass welfare dependency. This book provides the first comprehensive analysis of the reasons for this growth and subjects notions of welfare dependency to empirical test.
Part 3 - Benefits for disabled people
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 107-108
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List of acronyms
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp x-xvi
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21 - Trends in pension provision
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
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- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 245-250
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Summary
Summary
The number of retirement pensioners increased by 44% to 10.8 million between 1971 and 1998. 64% of pensioners are women.
Retirement pensioners constitute the largest group of benefit recipients and in 1998/99 accounted for 46% of social security expenditure. Increased spending on elderly people was responsible for 42% of the total rise in benefits expenditure between 1971/72 and 1998/99.
Virtually all men aged 65 and women aged 60 or older are entitled to a state pension (which can be postponed).
Most pensioners who have no other income, a proportion that has been declining, are eligible for means-tested Income Support.
At least 65% of pensioners also receive private or occupational pensions.
Leaving aside Child Benefit that is paid on behalf of 12.8 million children, retirement pensioners constitute Britain's largest group of benefit recipients (DSS, 1999i). Some 18% of the population (10.8 million people) were over pensionable age in 1998, and the income maintenance benefits that they received, worth £44.6 billion, accounted for 46% of social security expenditure. Approximately 16% of pensioner units also received disability benefits. Women account for 64% of pensioners.
The number of pensioners has increased steadily over the last 30 years, adding 3.3 million people (44%) to the retirement pension caseload between 1971 and 1998 (Figure 21.1). Indeed, social security and social assistance spending on elderly people increased by 103% between 1973 and 1998/99, and accounted for 42% of the total rise in social security expenditure (Evans, 1998). While the growth in numbers was large in absolute terms, it was exceeded in proportional terms by rises in the number of unemployed and disabled people claiming benefit.
Pension provision in Britain
Retirement, and the pension provision that underwrites it, are phenomena of the 20th century. In pre and early industrial economies people continued in employment until almost the end of their lives. However, increased longevity, combined with expectations of high productivity in employment that some older workers find difficult to sustain, have created an economic need and social taste for a period of worklessness at the end of life. When pensions were first introduced in Britain for people aged 70, the average period of retirement was less than two years.
4 - The economy and unemployment
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 53-68
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Summary
Summary
High inflation, triggered by the oil crises of the 1970s, led to tighter control of public spending and, with the election of the Thatcher government in 1979, an explicit belief that the control of inflation was more important than full employment. The unemployment rate rose to unprecedented levels and did not return to the levels of the early 1970s until 1999. Caseload numbers remain 65% above their 1971 level.
Rising unemployment coexisted with increasing employment over most of the 30-year period. A decline in manufacturing was more than offset by increased employment in the service sector, providing a mix of low and high paid jobs that have been increasingly of a part-time and/or short-term nature. Educational standards have risen, financial returns to qualifications have increased and wage dispersal has grown.
People who become unemployed are disproportionately male, young, poorly qualified, with little experience or with a poor work record. The same groups predominate among the stock of unemployed, although older people and members of ethnic minority groups, who find it more difficult to return to work, are also over-represented.
An increase in the average duration of unemployment was the major determinant of rising caseloads. Older workers, those with health problems, tenants (often an index of material deprivation) and people with dependant children were most at risk of long-term unemployment.
The prevalence of people experiencing repeated spells of unemployment while trapped in a ‘no pay low pay’ cycle may have increased.
The election-winning motif ‘It's the economy, stupid’, coined on behalf of President Clinton, is equally valuable in understanding Britain's increase in unemployed claimants. It is necessary to consider how the economy has changed, and how this might influence the characteristics of unemployed people and the time that they remain without work. However, it is first necessary to take account of the marked change in the approach to economic policy that has occurred over the last three decades.
Changed policy goals
Hindsight suggests that the immediate postwar pattern of full employment, interrupted by comparatively brief economic downturns, ended with the oil crises of the early 1970s. Traditional Keynsian methods of demand management appeared to lose their effectiveness. Economic policy errors in the early 1970s contributed to rapidly rising inflation which, combined with low growth, triggered ‘stagflation’, and the need for tough action by the incoming Labour government in 1974.
18 - Beliefs about the family and poverty
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
- Print publication:
- 27 September 2000, pp 217-226
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Summary
Summary
Increased divorce, cohabitation and lone parenthood reflect profound changes in sexual attitudes and relations. Sex and procreation have come to be separated from marriage.
Stigma associated with cohabitation has almost disappeared, but is still attached to lone parenthood, the growth of which during the 1980s and 1990s provoked moral panic among some policy makers.
Lone parenthood is often viewed as the lesser of two evils by lone mothers, generating financial, legal and housing problems but offering an escape from unsatisfactory relationships, and occasionally from unemployment and low status work.
Employment and employment opportunities for women are still influenced by traditional gender divisions of unpaid and paid work. Nevertheless, gender-based differentials in the labour market narrowed noticeably between the 1970s and 1990s, although improvements were limited to full-time work.
Low female wages extend the time that lone parents and couples with children spend on benefit (since a woman's wage is typically insufficient to take a family off benefit and out of poverty). However, a second earner even receiving low wages can protect families’ earners against poverty caused by low pay or unemployment.
Poverty has been reinstated to the political lexicon after a period in the 1980s and 1990s when its existence was denied and attention focused almost exclusively on reducing claimant numbers.
The decline in marriage and the increase in divorce, cohabitation and lone parenthood described in Chapter 16, and the polarisation of work resulting from the rise in dual earner couples and worklessness, considered in Chapter 17, are important consequences of even more profound changes in sexual morality and gender roles.
Sexual activity has become increasingly separated from the institution of marriage, and the sexual and economic dependency of women on men has been challenged in principle and practice. These changes have reforged some of the structures of inequality, reshaped patterns of deprivation and called into question prevailing views on the causes of poverty and the legitimacy of claims on social security.
While policy and policy institutions have sometimes influenced events, typically they have lagged behind changes in private behaviour and public attitudes. For this reason, changing attitudes towards sexual morality, the economic autonomy of women and the nature of poverty are considered in this chapter before describing some of the formative changes in social security policy in Chapter 19.
27 - Understanding the pattern of caseload growth
- Robert Walker, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford
- With Marilyn Howard
-
- Book:
- The Making of a Welfare Class?
- Published by:
- Bristol University Press
- Published online:
- 09 September 2022
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- 27 September 2000, pp 293-308
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Summary
Summary
Although caseloads of the four recipient groups – unemployed people, disabled people pensioners and families with children – all increased between 1971 and 1998/99, they did so for different reasons. The process of deindustrialisation provided a background for all the changes, but was only implicated as a major direct influence in the case of unemployment-related benefits.
Unemployment caseloads reflected movements in the economic cycle, but increased with the secular decline in manufacturing and a large youth cohort in the 1980s. By 1999, the claimant unemployment was comparable to that in 1971, although changed definitions flatter the comparison, and absolute numbers remained 65% higher because of growth in the labour force – largely on account of higher economic participation by women. Control of inflation replaced full employment as a policy priority in the late 1970s, and from the 1980s active labour market policies began to be implemented.
The number of disabled people claiming benefits rose in response to new provisions, themselves a consequence of growing recognition of the financial needs of disabled people. The reported prevalence of disability increased, while a more competitive economy and labour market may have placed disabled people seeking work at a growing disadvantage. Ill-health associated with increased poverty may also have played a role. An ageing population added to the caseloads of those benefits for people above retirement age.
New benefits – notably Child Benefit and means-tested benefits for working families – added to the number of families with children receiving benefit over a period during which fertility fell markedly. While, at times, unemployment inflated the numbers of families claiming out of work benefits, the three-fold growth in lone parents – reflecting profound changes in sexual attitudes and relationships – was the main cause of growth.
The increased retirement pensioner caseload was largely the result of higher life expectancy, but a decline in the means-tested caseload resulted from the maturation of occupational pensions and the State Earnings Related Pensions Scheme.
The diversity of experience, transience of circumstances, and differences in aspirations worked against the creation of class consciousness and the development of a welfare class.
The central issue addressed in this book is why, after 50 years of welfare state provision, increasing numbers of people seem still to be financially reliant on receipt of cash benefits.