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Enhancing ASEAN's Role in Critical Mineral Supply Chains
- Sharon Seah, Mirza Sadaqat Huda
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- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 17 April 2024
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- 08 February 2024
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The clean energy transition momentum is gathering pace globally, and in Southeast Asia as well. The transition is dependent on an uninterrupted supply of critical minerals and metals that are essential for the production of low-carbon technologies.
The supply of critical minerals is impeded by several constraints. First is the dominance of a handful of countries in both the upstream and downstream parts of the supply chain. Second is the current geopolitical race to secure supplies leading to greater protectionist behaviours, exhibited through export bans and trade impediments.
This study focuses on four selected critical minerals which are important to the region. Two criteria are used in determining a mineral having high significance: (1) There are significant deposits of it which can be tapped on to bolster Southeast Asia's strategic position in the supply chains; and (2) It is an essential input in industries and sectors of importance in Southeast Asia. The four critical minerals examined in this study are: copper, nickel, bauxite (alumina), and rare earth elements (REEs).
,br>The study makes three recommendations to enhance ASEAN's role in the critical minerals supply chains. The first addresses the insufficiency of investments in early-stage exploration and exploitation of critical minerals. The second appeals for investments at all stages, including in technology to tap into downstream activities beyond refining and purification, and in the manufacturing of component parts. The third calls for improvements in sustainability management in the mining sector, which is generally extremely environmentally and socially damaging to communities.
Frontmatter
- Sharon Seah, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, Mirza Sadaqat Huda, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute
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Enhancing ASEAN’s Role in Critical Mineral Supply Chains
- Sharon Seah, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, Mirza Sadaqat Huda, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute
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- Enhancing ASEAN's Role in Critical Mineral Supply Chains
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Summary
INTRODUCTIONAn energy transition is underway in Southeast Asia. This process is dependent on an uninterrupted supply of the minerals and metals that are essential to produce low-carbon technologies. These raw materials are termed ‘critical minerals’ (CMs), owing to three broad features: their necessity as inputs in low-carbon technology, the lack of viable substitutes, and significant supply constraints. The demand for CMs such as lithium, nickel, cobalt, rare earth elements (REEs), copper, and silicon3 is expected to increase exponentially in the coming decades. To meet the global net zero target by 2050, mineral inputs will need to increase sixfold by 2040, compared to current levels. According to scenarios developed by the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for minerals used in electric vehicles (EVs) will increase thirty times compared to current levels, while mineral requirements for low-carbon energy generation will triple by 2040.
The development of CMs is impeded by several supply constraints. Currently, a handful of countries dominate the CMs market, with China playing an outsized role in both the upstream and downstream parts of the supply chain. For example, China currently extracts 65 per cent and processes 85 per cent of the world's REEs. The largest amount of copper, nickel and cobalt are extracted in Chile, Indonesia, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), respectively. Yet, as shown in Figure 1, China dominates the processing of all three minerals, as well as alumina and lithium.
There is growing academic and policy consensus on the need to develop sustainable and reliable supply chains for CMs, which is of great relevance to Southeast Asia. On the one hand, the region can become a major supplier of critical minerals, due to the existence of substantial deposits of bauxite, nickel, tin, REEs, cobalt, manganese and graphite. On the other hand, Southeast Asia is likely to become a significant consumer of critical minerals, owing to the region’s growing solar photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle industries. Malaysia and Vietnam are the world’s second and third-largest solar PV manufacturers and accounted for one-fifth of global shipments in 2020.9 Thailand has become the region’s leading producer of EVs, while the Philippines and Indonesia have undertaken initial steps to develop integrated battery and EV supply chains.10
Foreword
- Sharon Seah, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, Mirza Sadaqat Huda, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute
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Summary
The economic, political, strategic and cultural dynamism in Southeast Asia has gained added relevance in recent years with the spectacular rise of giant economies in East and South Asia. This has drawn greater attention to the region and to the enhanced role it now plays in international relations and global economics.
The sustained effort made by Southeast Asian nations since 1967 towards a peaceful and gradual integration of their economies has had indubitable success, and perhaps as a consequence of this, most of these countries are undergoing deep political and social changes domestically and are constructing innovative solutions to meet new international challenges. Big Power tensions continue to be played out in the neighbourhood despite the tradition of neutrality exercised by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
The Trends in Southeast Asia series acts as a platform for serious analyses by selected authors who are experts in their fields. It is aimed at encouraging policymakers and scholars to contemplate the diversity and dynamism of this exciting region.
THE EDITORS
Series Chairman:
Choi Shing Kwok
Series Editor:
Ooi Kee Beng
Editorial Committee:
Daljit Singh
Francis E. Hutchinson
Norshahril Saat
Enhancing ASEAN’s Role in Critical Mineral Supply Chains
- Sharon Seah, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, Mirza Sadaqat Huda, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute
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- Book:
- Enhancing ASEAN's Role in Critical Mineral Supply Chains
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- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
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- 17 April 2024
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Summary
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
• The clean energy transition momentum is gathering pace globally, and in Southeast Asia as well. The transition is dependent on an uninterrupted supply of critical minerals and metals that are essential for the production of low-carbon technologies.
• The supply of critical minerals is impeded by several constraints. First is the dominance of a handful of countries in both the upstream and downstream parts of the supply chain. Second is the current geopolitical race to secure supplies leading to greater protectionist behaviours, exhibited through export bans and trade impediments.
• This study focuses on four selected critical minerals which are important to the region. Two criteria are used in determining a mineral having high significance: (1) There are significant deposits of it which can be tapped on to bolster Southeast Asia’s strategic position in the supply chains; and (2) It is an essential input in industries and sectors of importance in Southeast Asia. The four critical minerals examined in this study are: copper, nickel, bauxite (alumina), and rare earth elements (REEs).
• The study makes three recommendations to enhance ASEAN’s role in the critical minerals supply chains. The first addresses the insufficiency of investments in early-stage exploration and exploitation of critical minerals and, in the process, calls for an embracing of circular economy principles. The second appeals for investments at all stages, including in technology to tap into downstream activities beyond refining and purification, and in the manufacturing of component parts such as battery cell storage and permanent magnets. The third calls for improvements in sustainability management in the mining sector, which is generally extremely environmentally and socially damaging to communities.
Part II - States and Organizations Driving Trends
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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- Trending Islam
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9 - YouTube Islamic Web Series and the Mediatized Piety among Urban Muslims in Indonesia
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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Introduction
Muslim identity has become a discursive battleground in contemporary Indonesia. With over 229 million Muslims—that is, approximately 87 per cent of its total population, Indonesia is home to the world’s largest Muslim population. One of the most prevalent practices among Indonesian Muslims today, particularly those from urban areas, is to display their religious activities and traits on social media (Slama 2018; Weng 2018; Nisa 2018). In her study on the role of commercial television in mainstreaming Islam in Indonesia, Rakhmani (2017) posits that urban Muslims are experiencing a “spiritual anxiety”—that is, the desire to adopt a more Islamic way of life and behaviour, and seeking moral guidance through media content such as television shows. Notably, in today’s digital era, urban Muslims rely on social media for religious content such as watching YouTube sermons, following Instagram religious study groups, and streaming movies with Islamic values as they are easily accessible and offer audio-visual message delivery. Furthermore, more Muslims are utilizing social media as the technological and interactive capabilities of social media enable personal expressions and discussions of Islam, fostering a more individualized form of piety. To explain this new phenomenon, Bunt (2018, p. 1), in his book #Hashtag Islam, notes that contemporary expressions of Islam are increasingly relying heavily on digital media in which “faith, command, and control are manifest across complex systems of Muslim beliefs”.
According to Hefner (2010), the Islamic resurgence in Indonesia is part of a much larger religious resurgence in contemporary Asia. This spans from Catholic Filipinos converting to Pentecostal Christianity, the proliferation of meditation movements in Vietnam, to the increasing number of Buddhists in China despite the country’s secular Marxist- Leninist ideology. Interestingly, in all three cases, social media plays a crucial role, serving as a platform for individuals to display their piety, interact and exert influence on one another. A similar trend can also be observed in the Arab world where a group of young, middle-class, pious urban Muslims known as GUMmies (Global Urban Muslims) demonstrate how to live a modern, global lifestyle in an Islamic manner on Instagram (Zaid et al. 2022).
With the rise of digital Islam in the post-Suharto era, van Bruinessen (2013) speculates a conservative turn transpiring in Indonesia’s mainstream Islam. In this context, “conservative” refers to religious views that conform to existing dogmas and societal structures.
About the Contributors
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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3 - The Salafi-Jihadi Identity and Malaysia’s Battle with Islamist Extremism
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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Introduction
The puritan form of Islamic ideology, salafi-jihadism, sanctions the use of violence to accomplish its objective of erecting an Islamic state that enforces the ideals of Salafism, which calls for a return to the Prophet’s puritanical teachings as exemplified in his hadith (oral and practical traditions), sunna (trodden path), and the lives of his companions and al-salaf al-salih (pious predecessors), i.e. early generations of Muslims who survived Muhammad (peace be upon him) until three-hundred years of his death. Underlying the violence approved by terrorist network Al-Qaeda’s jihadist ideology was its indiscriminate call to kill both civilian and military enemies anywhere in the world, thus catapulting armed jihad to the global stage (Amin 2014, pp. 118–19). Salafi-jihadism became the driving doctrine behind the active recruitment of jihadist fighters into Al-Qaeda franchises all over the world and large-scale movements of transnational jihadist funds (Hegghammer 2009, pp. 251–57, Zulkarnain and Nordin 2013, pp. 22–25).
The rise since mid-2014 of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a terrorist group otherwise known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the Islamic State (IS) or Daesh (after its Arabic acronym), at one point seemed to have eclipsed other manifestations of global Islamist violence. ISIS’s notoriety was attributable to, among other things, its spectacular brutality, territorial gains, and apocalyptic ideology. ISIS intentionally employed violence as a political weapon and showcased grisly online images to cow populations under its control and convince the large viewing public of its invincibility. What many did not realize was that ISIS tapped into sentiments that had been fostered by extremist policies of many Muslim governments and leaders themselves as an outgrowth of decades of authoritarian rule following post-colonial upheavals in many Muslim societies. The lack of a civic culture and human rights regime in Muslim polities is legitimized by the identification of such forms of governance with secular, liberal, and hence ungodly values, driven as it is by a bipolar view of the world pitting the umma against belligerent forces. In ISIS, Muslims were lulled into believing that a promised utopia was in the offing, underlined by its territorial control and imposition of a political order ostensibly based on Islam, and fuelled by eschatological convictions founded upon a misreading of Prophetic traditions dealing with events near the end of time.
ISIS’s violent ideology drew support from a handful of Muslims in Southeast Asia.
Part III - Influencers Driving Trends
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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5 - Digital Anti-Islamist Activism at the Forefront of Political Polarization in Indonesia
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- By Yuji Mizuno
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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- Trending Islam
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Summary
Introduction
Following its democratic transition in 1998 which saw the lifting of the state’s grip on religious affairs, there is a broad scholarly agreement that liberal and progressive Islam in Indonesia is on a decline (Fealy 2019; van Bruinessen 2013). Taking advantage of this political opening in the post-Suharto era, Islamist actors have expanded their influence with their majoritarian agenda to normalize religious conservatism at the expense of the country’s pluralist fabric (Hefner 2021; Jones 2021) and challenge liberal Islamic intellectuals’ “power to define the terms of [religious] debate” (van Bruinessen 2013, p. 4). However, under the Joko Widodo presidency whose political platform embraces religious pluralism, the government has pushed back on Islamism, albeit accompanied by repressive measures, relying on heightened government authority (Mietzner 2018; Fealy 2020; Setijadi 2021). This development is closely associated with the broader trend of “democratic backsliding” or “illiberal turn” under the Widodo government (Power and Warburton 2020; Diprose et al. 2019). Scholars argue that the political elites today are creatively implementing “authoritarian innovations” (Curato and Fossati 2020) to assist such developments, among which increasingly prominent is the use of social media campaigns to stifle opponents and critics as well as to justify controversial government policies (Wijayanto and Berenschot 2021; Sastramidjaja and Wijayanto 2022).
Under such conditions, I argue in this chapter that proponents and sympathizers of liberal Islamic activism have found a new life by incorporating new forms of online media and adapting to the political opportunities, evolving into frontline critics in the war against religious conservatism on cyberspace. In the process, these “digital anti-Islamist activists” as I frame them which include members of the renowned but now-inactive Jaringan Islam Liberal (Liberal Islamic Network, JIL) community, have managed to amass substantial online followings as opinion leaders, spreading their views through highly polemical rhetoric by attracting mainstream media coverage and rattling the Islamist communities and grassroots. In an era characterized by political polarization and democratic regression, however, the use of polarizing rhetoric and prioritizing the defence of the Widodo government’s controversial policies have invited scrutiny from the other end of the spectrum of civil society, which emphasizes the preservation of democratic principles.
Based on digital ethnography and original data obtained through interviews, the following sections will shed light on the current wave of resistance by liberal Islamic activists against Islamism, which has unfolded in the digital realm.
2 - The Trendsetters of Islam throughout Indonesian History
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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Summary
Over the years, two broad groups have shaped Islam in Indonesia: (1) the pluralists and (2) the conservative Islamists. Contestations between the two groups have coloured Islam throughout the country’s history. Scholars normally associate the pluralists with the leaders of secular nationalist parties, Muslim intellectuals in the New Order regime, and members of the two largest Muslim mass organizations, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) and Muhammadiyah. These actors imagine Indonesia to be an inclusive nation embracing ethnic and religious diversity, and promoting equal standing among Indonesian citizens. By contrast, the Islamists include leaders of Muslim mass organizations or parties influenced by transnational Islamic movements aiming to Islamize the state and Indonesian society.
I argue that in Indonesia, the pluralists have been the more dominant actors in the public sphere, though their Islamist rivals somewhat challenge their authority in this digital age. The pluralists have made Indonesia a religiously neutral state and an inclusive society. Scholars argue that the pluralists’ dominance results not only from their intellectual capacity to harmonize Islam and civic pluralism, but they are also well-funded and receive support from the state. Robert Hefner’s (2000) study on Civil Islam is correct. During the New Order period, the role of Muslim intellectuals such as Nurcholish Madjid (Cak Nur) and Abdurrahman Wahid (Gus Dur) in promoting moderate Islam was crucial in the pluralists’ triumph.
This trend continues during the post-New Order era. Here, I refer to the people’s moral opposition towards religious intolerance and sectarianism. This component, I believe, has been more visible in recent years, and it is a positive development in Indonesian Islam. It has helped Indonesia’s civic pluralism thrive amidst heated religious tension in Indonesia’s recent political history.
The thoughts of Abdurrahman Wahid, Nurcholish Madjid, and Syafi’i Maarif (Buya Syafii) remain essential and relevant to the current state of Indonesian Islam, defying some arguments that Indonesia is experiencing a “conservative turn”. Many have admitted that there was not much difference in the three figures’ thoughts despite coming from different cultural and organizational backgrounds. They grew up and emerged out of three mainstream Muslim communities in the country.
Like a locomotive, the three pulled the large traditional Muslim carriage into the modern era that cherishes inclusivity and diversity, and thus placed Islam as an important source in building modern Indonesia. They prioritized Islam in substance rather than form, especially in the context of building the nation and state.
Frontmatter
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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1 - Introduction
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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Due to its strategic location, maritime Southeast Asia serves as an economic hub that connects the East and the West, with the Straits of Malacca serving as an important route for business access. Maritime Southeast Asia remains essential today, if not more significant, as the economies within the region continue to grow faster than many other regions in the world. Its strategic location and the advancement of its combined economy make the region a premiere meeting point, offline and online, for many people worldwide as more people look for investment opportunities and leisure activities in more prosperous Southeast Asia.
Apart from its economic and strategic positioning, maritime Southeast Asia is a significant area for analysis as the region also serves as a hub for the cross-pollination of ideas. During the Cold war period (1945–91), Southeast Asia became the battleground for the forces of neo-liberal capitalism and communism. But an equally interesting scope of scholarly interest is the development and exchange of religious ideas, particularly concerning Islam. Azra’s (2004) study The Origins of Islamic Reformism in Southeast Asia, among others, remain one of the most important contributions capturing the network of Malay-Indonesian and Middle Eastern ideas in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Maritime Southeast Asia is home to the largest Muslim society in the world, namely Indonesia. Eighty-nine per cent of its 281 million people are Muslims. However, the community is not homogenous, depending on where they live, and the extent to which they immerse cultural and ethnic influences into their religious life. Some would reckon that the country is also changing, from one that was referred to as the smiling face of Islam to one that is currently experiencing a conservative turn (Van Bruinessen 2013; Feillard and Madinier 2011); or a hotbed of political Islam and radicalism (Ayoob 2008).
Maritime Southeast Asia is also home to the relatively homogenous and traditional Islamic polity of Brunei Darussalam, which ties the concept of the monarchy to Islam and Malay culture. Based on its 2021 census, Brunei has a population of 333,600 citizens, 89 per cent of which are Malays (Department of Economic Planning and Statistics, Brunei 2023).
7 - Being Funny is Trendy: NU Garis Lurus vs NU Garis Lucu
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- By A’an Suryana
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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- Trending Islam
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Summary
Internet-based schisms within the most prominent Muslim organization, Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), have been a subject of interest among scholars, particularly between two factions: NU Garis Lurus (NU Straight Brigade) (Iqbal 2020) and NU Garis Lucu (NU Funny Brigade) (Hoesterey 2021). In the 2015 NU congress held in Jombang, East Java province, these social groups competed for power. NU activists who felt that NU was more liberal, established the NU Garis Lurus and campaigned through conservative social media outlets. Their sympathizers ran for NU’s top post, challenging chairman Said Agil Siradj, an NU veteran activist seen to be promoting liberal ideas. Running in the election provided NU Garis Lurus with a platform to increase its influence within the organization. Through the media, they expressed a barrage of criticism that NU leaders had given in to Western ideas of secularism, pluralism, and liberalism (SEPILIS) (Rohman 2020, pp. 269–71).
Alarmed by NU Garis Lurus’ influence, the NU liberal camp fought back. Young activists at NU established the NU Garis Lucu, a social media community that “used satire and humour to temper the accusations of NU Garis Lurus and to mobilise social media as a uniting force within Nahdlatul Ulama and Indonesia more broadly” (Hoesterey 2021, p. 85). These youth activists demonstrated that the anti-NU Garis Lurus movement did not represent NU’s structure. Hence, the dispute between NU Garis Lurus and NU Garis Lucu is not a social dispute that pits “structural NU” against “cultural NU”; rather, the dispute is an internal schism among the different factions within NU. “Structural NU” refers to a group of NU activists whose members assume formal positions in NU’s organizational structure and who are therefore influential among NU members. On the other hand, “cultural NU” refers to a group of NU activists who do not assume formal positions in NU’s organizational structure, but they wield considerable influence among NU members due to their expertise in Islam or their exemplary behaviour.
These kinds of discourse contestations among different camps within NU are old contestations that are translated, emphasized, and amplified through new platforms such as social media, in addition to mainstream media. This internal contestation is not novel in NU. Political schisms are not unusual and are most evident during the NU congress which is held every five years. One notable schism occurred ahead of the 1984 congress.
10 - Being Spiritual and Trendy: Singapore’s Islamic Authority in the Age of Capitalism and Populism
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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- 21 September 2023, pp 198-220
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Summary
Introduction
Islam is closely tied to the cultural identity of Singapore Malays. Based on the 2021 census report, the Malays constitute 15.1 per cent of Singapore’s 5.5 million population (“Population in Brief 2021” 2021), of which 98.0 per cent profess Islam. The religious elite—the ulama (Islamic religious scholars), religious teachers, and preachers—wield significant influence on the religious community regarding spiritual matters. However, their authority has been somewhat challenged in the new media and digitization age. What does this mean for their future and the quality of religious discourse in Singapore? This chapter focuses on the movers and shakers of the Singapore Malay/Muslim community’s religious discourse and outlook.
As the religious elite ride on new digital mediums of instruction, they easily migrate from the traditional print, radio, and television platforms to the new digital ones. They utilize the Internet and have become social media savvy. Consequently, the local religious elites must venture beyond conventional ways of preaching and compete with preachers from different parts of the world as religious learning is no longer confined to the mosques and madrasahs. The pressure to apply new forms of preaching does not apply to Islamic elites only. According to Naim (2013), the rise of new Pentecostal and charismatic churches has also redefined religious authority in Christianity. He also argues that while the arrival of these micropowers does not undermine traditional authority, the “big players” can no longer take their power for granted (ibid., pp. 196–97).
However, I contend that the religious elite’s digital ventures are not necessarily accompanied by shifts in their thinking. The dominant religious orientation continues to manifest traditionalism. This orientation is now ushered by capitalism and populism, presented and repackaged with sophistication via the new media, and sustained by the growth of the Muslim middle class. The middle class riding on Islamic symbolic commodities and reaping financial incentives to raise their social positions (Muzakki 2008, p. 205) further complicates any possibility of reform. Significant changes in the discursive arena are further slowed by state policies that accord the asatizah (religious teachers) the sole authority to speak on Islamic matters. Through occupational licensing, this legitimacy given to the theologians resulted from the state’s attempt to tackle radicalism through the religious lens. Yet, moderate Islam discourse ignores attention to other aspects of modernization and development: tackling irrationalism and addressing inequality.
4 - Extremism in Malaysia: Civil Servants as Trendsetters and Conduits of Trends
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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Introduction
In discussions on trending Islamic ideas, focus has been given to the role of charismatic personalities or popular mediums, namely the Internet and social media, but not on the role played by administrators. In Malaysia, the role of public administrators is equally important, especially on matters related to Islam, as religion has become intertwined with public policy. Malaysia’s civil service is estimated to employ a million staff members, and for a country with a population of 32.7 million, the number of civil servants signifies “strength and influence” (Ahmad Faiz Yaakob et al. 2012, p. 133). Majority of the civil servants are Malay by ethnicity and this does not accurately reflect Malaysia’s multiethnic composition. According to Malaysia’s 2020 census, the three major ethnic groups in the country are Malay or Bumiputera (69.4 per cent), Chinese (7.3 per cent), and Indian (0.7 per cent) (Launching of Report on the Key Findings Population and Housing Census of Malaysia 2020).
Prijono Tjiptoherijanto (2012) states that the “indigenous Bumiputeras which are largely ethnic Malays” have “87 per cent of government jobs”. Prijono further adds that “the biggest loser in the current system is Indians, who, according to government statistics make up 9 per cent of the labor force but hold 16 per cent of menial jobs and control just 1.2 per cent of equity in registered company in the country”. In 2022, the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) admitted that 89.23 per cent of the top posts in Malaysia’s public service are Malay, and that those from Sabah and Sarawak are also least represented (Malaysiakini 2022).
As most civil servants are Malay-Muslim, scrutinizing their role and impact in society is important, especially since those serving in religious institutions are also considered civil servants. Moreover, religious authorities have been allocated a large amount of funds from Malaysia’s national budget. The previous administration provided a RM1.5 billion budget allocation for the management and development of Islam, and this was heavily criticized especially since the religious authorities are regarded as largely incompetent (Imran Ariff 2021).
This chapter aims to analyse the significance of a Malay-Muslim dominant civil service. Arguably, as Muslims, the Malays are very much influenced by current Islamic trends. The civil servants’ way of thinking about certain issues can be carefully predicted according to contemporary trends.
Foreword
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
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- Book:
- Trending Islam
- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 26 March 2024
- Print publication:
- 21 September 2023, pp vii-xvii
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Summary
Introduction
To appreciate contemporary trends, one must appreciate historical origins, for they continue to define and influence the evolution of religious observance. Thus, there is a need to understand the ways in which Islam initially came into what is now Southeast Asia, especially the power of trade and proselytization in precolonial times, the impact of European colonial competition and imperial administration, followed by the impact of postcolonial nation-building.
Although only three countries in Southeast Asia have Muslimmajority populations, the narratives of Muslim-minority communities form a vital part of Southeast Asian Islam. For example, there are the Rohingya in Myanmar, the Chams of Cambodia, the Muslims in the former Sultanates of Pattani or Maguindanao, and the Malays in Singapore.
Proper treatment of this topic also demands a thorough grounding of regional geopolitics and an intimate knowledge of the domestic politics within specific countries. The nexus between religion and politics has grown in intensity all around the world, even in nominally secular countries such as the United States or India. Whether one is referring to evangelical Christianity, resurgent Hindutva, or Islamism allied with ethnic supremacy, we can see how almost every area of public policy has become infused with religious rhetoric: in justifying national budgets, tax policy, education policy, international relations, trade rules, housing and neighbourhood regulations, abortion rights, regulation of Islamic Finance which now includes fintech, and the administration of justice itself.
This edited volume showcases some of the emerging trends in Southeast Asian Islam. There are many ways of reading this book: one may choose to read the chapters to have a deeper understanding of the trends surrounding Islam in specific countries in the region—mainly Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei—or one can compare cases across state boundaries given that all these societies are now confronted with a new mode of religious transmission in the form of social media. The faithful are no longer studying religion solely from the mosque or madrasah, but they are doing so through the Internet and social media platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Tik Tok.
Malaysia
I am rather inspired by Professor Komaruddin Hidayat’s incredibly insightful piece on Indonesia (Chapter 2), so this Foreword will focus on Malaysia.
Malaysia was known for a long time as a tolerant Muslim country, and there were many affirmations of this.
Trending Islam
- Cases from Southeast Asia
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, A'an Suryana, Mohd Faizal Musa
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- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 26 March 2024
- Print publication:
- 21 September 2023
-
What are trending Islamic ideas in Southeast Asia; how are they transmitted and who transmits them? These are questions that linger among the minds of policymakers, diplomats and scholars interested in Islam in Southeast Asia. Trending Islam maps and discusses key personalities, groups or institutions that influence Muslims in the region. This book dedicates more space to discuss the role of the Internet in disseminating religious discourses. Internet's role, in particular the use of social media either to advance interpretations of Islamic ideas or to gain influence in the public sphere, is becoming more significant as it allows information to spread faster and wider. While not discounting traditional issues such as extremism and terrorism, matters that continue to affect many people's lives in the region, the book delves into the interaction between violent and non-violent extremism and the liberal and progressive responses to them. Trending Islam covers the transmission of Islam in several countries and some case studies.
Part I - Continuing and Emerging Trends
- Edited by Norshahril Saat, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute, A'an Suryana, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia, Mohd Faizal Musa, ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute and National University of Malaysia
-
- Book:
- Trending Islam
- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 26 March 2024
- Print publication:
- 21 September 2023, pp 13-14
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