Twenty-nine prominent blacks, all but five from the North, met at Niagara Falls, Canada in 1905 to organize their opposition to white racism and violence as well as Booker T. Washington's conciliatory leadership. Led by Atlanta University scholar W. E. B. Du Bois, they vowed to fight for civil rights, including the right to vote; abolition of Jim Crow and lynching; and economic and educational equality.

Their movement echoed that of forerunners such as the Citizens’ Equal Rights Association and Afro-American League. It published The Moon and Horizon newspapers, had 30 branches with about 400 members, convened annual meetings, and remained a strong voice of protest. Du Bois and others cofounded the NAACP in 1909.