Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Structure of ice
- 3 Microstructure of natural ice features
- 4 Physical properties: elasticity, friction and diffusivity
- 5 Plastic deformation of the ice single crystal
- 6 Ductile behavior of polycrystalline ice: experimental data and physical processes
- 7 Modeling the ductile behavior of isotropic and anisotropic polycrystalline ice
- 8 Rheology of high-pressure and planetary ices
- 9 Fracture toughness of ice
- 10 Brittle failure of ice under tension
- 11 Brittle compressive failure of unconfined ice
- 12 Brittle compressive failure of confined ice
- 13 Ductile-to-brittle transition under compression
- 14 Indentation fracture and ice forces on structures
- 15 Fracture of the ice cover on the Arctic Ocean
- Index
- References
12 - Brittle compressive failure of confined ice
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 February 2010
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Structure of ice
- 3 Microstructure of natural ice features
- 4 Physical properties: elasticity, friction and diffusivity
- 5 Plastic deformation of the ice single crystal
- 6 Ductile behavior of polycrystalline ice: experimental data and physical processes
- 7 Modeling the ductile behavior of isotropic and anisotropic polycrystalline ice
- 8 Rheology of high-pressure and planetary ices
- 9 Fracture toughness of ice
- 10 Brittle failure of ice under tension
- 11 Brittle compressive failure of unconfined ice
- 12 Brittle compressive failure of confined ice
- 13 Ductile-to-brittle transition under compression
- 14 Indentation fracture and ice forces on structures
- 15 Fracture of the ice cover on the Arctic Ocean
- Index
- References
Summary
Introduction
Compressive failure more often than not occurs under a multi-axial state of stress. For example, during the interaction between a floating ice feature and an engineered structure, material within the contact zone is compressed not only along the direction of impact, but also in orthogonal directions, owing to constraint imposed by surrounding material. The confinement induces biaxial (thin feature, wide structure) and triaxial (thick feature, narrow structure) stress states, which, as we show below, have a large effect on the strength of the ice and on its mode of failure.
This is not surprising. Based upon the failure of unconfined material and on the importance to that process of frictional crack sliding cum the development of secondary cracks (Chapter 11), confinement plays two roles: it lessens the excess or effective shear stress that drives sliding; and it lowers the mode-I stress intensity factor that drives crack growth. Higher applied stresses are thus required to activate the mechanism. Also, in holding the ice together, confinement promotes the development of shear faults. Indeed, very little confinement is required (Wachter et al., 2008), to the effect that from a practical perspective faulting and not axial splitting is the more important failure mode.
In this chapter we review the observations and their interpretation. We again begin with a short discussion of experimental methods, and then quantify the effects of confinement on the behavior of both granular and columnar polycrystalline ice.
Information
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Creep and Fracture of Ice , pp. 266 - 319Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2009
References
and (1986). The failure of brittle solids containing small cracks under compressive stress states. Acta Metall., 34, 497–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1971). The friction and creep of polycrystalline ice. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A, 324, 127–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1997). Size effect in compression fracture: Splitting crack band propagation. J. Eng. Mech., February, 162–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1939). The mechanism of sliding on ice and snow. Proc. R. Soc. A, 172, 280–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1963). A note of brittle crack growth in compression. J. Geophys. Res., 68, 3709–3713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1967). Frictional characteristics of granite under high confining pressure. J. Geophys. Res., 72, 3639–3648.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1976). Microscopic feather fractures in the faulting process. Tectonophysics, 33, 187–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1997). Fracture localization along faults with spatially varying friction. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 24,425–24,434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2007). Relationship between fracture and friction for brittle rocks. Mech. Mater., 39, 291–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1964). The Mechanical Properties of Matter. Wiley Series on the Science and Technology of Materials. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
and (1994). The cracking of ice under rapid unloading. Phil. Mag. Lett., 69, 865–886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1991). Analysis of minor fractures associated with joints and faulted joints. J. Struct. Geol., 13, 865–886.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Relations between left-lateral strike-slip faults and right-lateral kink bands in granodiorite, Mt. Abbot Quadrangle, Sierra Nevada, California. Pure Appl. Geophys., 124, 177–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1983). Experimental deformation of polycrystalline H2O ice at high pressure and low temperature: Preliminary results. J. Geophys. Res., 88, B377–B392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2006). The resistance to sliding along coulombic shear faults in columnar S2 ice. Ph.D. thesis, Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College.
and (2007a). Do loading path and specimens thickness affect the brittle compressive strength of ice? J. Glaciol., 53, 305–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2007b). The resistance to sliding along coulombic shear faults in ice. Acta Mater., 55, 2253–2264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1977). Plane-strain compressive strength of columnar-grained and granular-snow ice. J. Glaciol., 18, 505–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1995). Triaxial experiments on iceberg and glacier ice. J. Glaciol., 41, 528–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2009). M.Sc. thesis. Hanover, Dartmouth College (in preparation).
, , and (1990). Mechanical anisotropy of gneiss: Failure criterion and textural sources of directional behavior. J. Geophys. Res., 95, 613–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1985). Origin, damping and pattern development of faults in granite. Tectonics, 4, 721–737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1997). Brittle failure of columnar saline ice under triaxial compression. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 5091–5107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1969). The origin of deep focus earthquakes. In Properties of Matter Under Unusual Conditions, eds. and . Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley Interscience, pp. 23–42.Google Scholar
and (1998). Compressive failure of rocks by shear faulting. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 23,875–23,895.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2006). True triaxial stresses and the brittle fracture of rock. Pure Appl. Geophys. 163, 1101–1130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1981). Multiaxial compressive strength tests on saline ice using brush-type loading platens. IAHR Ice Symposium, Quebec, Canada.Google Scholar
(1989). Beitrag zur ermittlung der kräfte beim eisbrechen under besonderere berücksichtigung der anisotropie des eises under seinter versagenseigenschaften under mehrachsiger beanspruchung. Bericht Nr. 494. Hamburg: Institut für Schiffbau der Universität Hamburg, 142.Google Scholar
and (1988). Plastic instabilities: Implications for the origin of intermediate and deep focus earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res., 93, 10,521–10,540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1985). Compression-induced microcrack growth in brittle solids: Axial splitting and shear failure. J. Geophys. Res., 90, 3105–3125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Brittle failure in compression: Splitting, faulting and brittle-ductile transition. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 319, 337–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2000). Contributions to brittle compressive failure of ice. Ph.D. thesis, Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College.
and (2004). The brittle compressive failure of fresh-water columnar ice loaded biaxially. Acta Mater., 52, 5723–5735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1981). Mixed-mode fracture initiation in Indiana limestone and westerly granite. Proceedings 22nd U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, 199–204.Google Scholar
(1982). The confined compressive strength of polycrystalline ice. J. Glaciol., 28, 171–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2001). Mechanics of ice-structure interaction. Eng. Fract. Mech., 68, 1923–1960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1999). Disintegration of ice under fast compressive loading. Int. J. Fract., 97, 279–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2001). Rheological structure and deformation of subducted slabs in the mantle transition zone: Implications for mantle circulation and deep earthquakes. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 127, 83–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2000). Friction of ice on ice at low sliding velocities. Phil. Mag. A, 80, 1093–1110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987). Localized polymorphic phase transformations in high-pressure faults and applications to the physical mechanism of deep earthquakes. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 13,789–13,800.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1994). The mechanical properties of saline ice under uniaxial compression. Ann. Glaciol., 19, 39–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1995). Dislocation-grain boundary interactions in ice crystals. Phil. Mag. A, 71, 15–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , et al. (1998). Test environments and mechanical properties of Zr-base bulk amorphous alloys. Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 29, 1811–1820.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2002). Overthrusts due to easy-slip/poor-slip transitions at the bed: The mathematical singularity with non-linear isotropic viscosity. J. Glaciol., 48, 109–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1989). Mechanics of slip and fracture along small faults and simple strike-slip fault zones in granitic rock. J. Geophys. Res., 94, 9417–9428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1988). Development of simple strike-slip fault zones in granitic rock, Mount Abbott Quadrangle, Sierra Nevada, California. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 100, 1451–1465.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1999). Microstructural change in ice: II. Creep behavior under triaxial stress conditions. J. Glaciol., 45, 438–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1999). Microstructural change in ice: I. Constant-deformation-rate tests under triaxial stress conditions. J. Glaciol., 45, 417–455.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1998). Ductile compressive failure of columnar saline ice under triaxial loading. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 21,759–21,766.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2003). On friction and surface cracking during sliding. J. Glaciol., 49, 391–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Yield and failure envelope for ice under multiaxial compressive stresses. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 13, 75–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1995). Grain-boundary sliding and across-column cracking in columnar ice. Phil. Mag. Lett. 72, 93–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987). Shear instability in a viscoelastic material as the cause for deep focus earthquakes. J. Geophy. Res., 92, 13,801–13,810.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1960). Mechanism of seismic faulting. In Rock Deformation, eds. and . New York: Memoirs of the Geological Society of America, pp. 323–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005). Experimental Rock Deformation: The Brittle Field, 2nd edn. New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
and (1972). Crack growth and faulting in cylindrical specimens of chelmsford granite. Int. J. Rock. Mech. Min. Sci., 9, 37–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1995). Crack nucleation in columnar ice due to elastic anistropy and grain boundary sliding. Acta Metall. Mater., 43, 3783–3789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1987). Theoretical displacements and stresses near fractures in rocks: With applications to faults, joints, veins, dikes, and solution surfaces. In Fracture Mechanics of Rock, ed. . San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 277–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2001). Universal behavior in compressive failure of brittle materials. Nature, 412, 897–900.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and (2004). Plastic faulting: Brittle-like failure under high confinement. J. Geophys. Res., 109, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1991). Confined compressive strength of horizontal first-year sea ice samples. J. Offshore Mech. Arctic Eng., 113, 344–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1993). The tensile strength of first-year sea ice. J. Glaciol., 39, 609–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1981). Stress fields about strike-slip faults from stylolites and tension gashes. Tectonophysics, 75, T29–T36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1997). High stress ice fracture and friction. J. Phys. Chem. B, 101, 6263–6266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1994). Microcracking and shear fracture in ice. Ann. Glaciol., 19, 131–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1975). Formulas for Stress and Strain, 5th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., p. 550.Google Scholar
and (1975). Conditions for the localization of deformation in pressure-sensitive dilatant materials. J. Mech. Phys. Sol., 23, 371–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). The failure of brittle porous solids under compressive stress states. Acta Metall., 34, 511–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2001). Sea ice fracture and friction. In Scaling Laws in Ice Mechanics, eds. and . Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, pp. 183–194.Google Scholar
, and (1989). Fracture of multi-year sea ice under triaxial stresses: Apparatus description and preliminary results. J. Offshore Mech. Arctic Eng., 111, 258–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1998). Fracture of multi-year sea ice. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 21,795–21,815.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2002). Compressive shear faulting in ice: Plastic vs. Coulombic faults. Acta Mater., 50, 3415–3424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1995). The brittle-to-ductile transition and ductile failure envelopes of orthotropic ice under biaxial compression. Acta Metall. Mater., 43, 3661–3668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1999). The brittle compressive failure of orthotropic ice under triaxial loading. Acta Mater., 47, 745–755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2006). Brittle compressive failure of ice: Proportional straining vs. proportional loading. J. Glaciol., 52, 248–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1995). Failure of columnar saline ice under biaxial compression: failure envelopes and the brittle-to-ductile transition. J. Geophys. Res., 100, 22,383–22,400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1991). The effect of confinement on the brittle compressive fracture of ice. Ann. Glaciol., 15, 216–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1999). On the initiation of shear faults during brittle compressive failure: A new mechanism. J. Geophys. Res., 104, 695–705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2006a). Failure envelope of first-year arctic sea ice: The role of friction in compressive fracture. J. Geophys. Res., 111, doi: 10.1029/2005JC003234186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (2006b). On the role of frictional sliding in the compressive fracture of ice and granite: Terminal vs. post-terminal failure. Acta Mater., 54, 3923–3932.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1991a). The effects of porosity on the brittle-ductile transition in sandstones. J. Geophys. Res., 96, 405–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1991b). The effects of porosity on fault reactivation in sandstones. J. Geophy. Res., 96, 2352–2362.Google Scholar
and (1983). Nucleation and growth of strike-slip faults in granite. J. Geophys. Res., 88, 555–568.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Fracture toughness of Bohai Bay sea ice. 5th International Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Symposium, OMAE-AIME.
and (1993). The brittle compressive failure of fresh-water columnar ice under biaxial loading. Acta Metall. Mater., 41, 153–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1994). The brittle compressive failure of columnar salt-water ice under biaxial loading. J. Glaciol., 40, 265–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005). Faulting under high-confinement conditions: An experimental study of compressive failure in granular ice. M.Sc. thesis, Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, 87.
, , and (1987). The edge cracking and spalling of brittle plates. Acta. Metall., 35, 1333–1341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Confined compression tests: Outlining the failure envelope of columnar sea ice. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 12, 13–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1977). Friction of a steel ball on a single crystal of ice. J. Glaciol., 19, 225–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1928). Mechanics of the ductile form changes of crystals. Z. Angew. Math Mech., 8, 161–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2008). Transition in brittle failure mode in ice under low confinement. Acta Mater., in press.
and (1995). The failure of fresh-water granular ice under multiaxial compressive loading. Acta Metall. Mater., 43, 2303–2315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2000). Grain boundary sliding and crack nucleation in ice. Phil. Mag., 80, 279–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2007). Sea ice rheology in-situ, satellite and laboratory observations: Fracture and friction. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2006.11.033.CrossRef
(2001). Seismological constraints on the mechanism of deep earthquakes: Temperature dependence of deep earthquake source properties. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter., 127, 145–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1975). Adiabatic shear of titanium and polymethylmethacrylate. Phil. Mag., 31, 765–773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1982). Micromechanics of faulting in Westerly granite. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 19, 49–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Accessibility standard: Unknown
Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this book is currently unknown
and may be updated in the future.