Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-10-31T23:00:31.722Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - Measuring hormonal variation in the sympathetic nervous system: catecholamines

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 September 2009

By
Daniel E. Brown
Edited by
Gillian H. Ice  and
Gary D. James
Gillian H. Ice
Affiliation:
Ohio University
Gary D. James
Affiliation:
State University of New York, Binghamton
Get access

Summary

It is commonplace for people to conceptualize the body's response to stress as an “adrenaline rush,” with the symptoms of this response, as described by Cannon (1915), characterizing the “fight or flight” response. This common understanding of the stress response encompasses one major component of biological stress: activation of the sympathetic adrenal medullary system (SAMS). The other main arm of the stress response, the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal cortex (HPA) axis, will be discussed in the next chapter. Activation of the SAMS has widespread effects in the body. These effects are seen as being allostatic in nature; that is, they help maintain homeostasis through the initiation of physiological change. Measures of stress have been used that identify the indirect effects of SAMS activation such as increased pulse and blood pressure. Other measures, to be examined here, focus on more direct evidence for SAMS activation.

Stress has taken on great importance for humans in the modern world. The most common ailments that threaten us, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and even some cancers, apparently are influenced by chronically high stress levels. The response that has allowed our ancestors to adapt to the stressors that were part of their world now appears too often to be an inappropriate one for the kinds of stressors, from traffic to deadlines, that confront us today (Sapolsky, 1994).

The stress response represents adaptation to actual or perceived challenges from the environment, with this process termed “allostasis” (McEwen, 1998).

Type
Chapter
Information
Measuring Stress in Humans
A Practical Guide for the Field
 , pp. 94 - 121
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Akerstedt, T., Gillberg, M., Hjemdahl, P.et al. (1983). Comparisons of urinary and plasma catecholamine responses to mental stress. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 117, 19–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, J. P. and Allen, C. F. (1974). Role of the amygdaloid complexes in the stress-induced release of ACTH in the rat. Neuroendocrinology, 15, 220–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aslan, S., Nelson, L., Carruthers, M. and Lader, M. (1981). Stress and age effects on catecholamines in normal subjects. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 25, 33–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Axelrod, J. and Reisine, T. D. (1984). Stress hormones: their interaction and regulation. Science, 224, 452–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babisch, W. (2003). Stress hormones in the research on cardiovascular effects of noise. Noise Health, 5, 1–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Babisch, W., Fromme, H., Beyer, A. and Ising, H. (2001). Increased catecholamine levels in urine in subjects exposed to road traffic noise: the role of stress hormones in noise research. Environmental International, 26, 475–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, R. F., Raskind, M., Gumbrecht, G. and Halter, J. B. (1982). The effects of age on the plasma catecholamine response to mental stress in man. Journal of Clinical and Endocrinology and Metabolism, 54, 64–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Best, J. D. and Halter, J. B. (1982). Release and clearance rates of epinephrine in man: importance of arterial measurements. Journal of Clinical Endocrinological Metabolism, 55, 263–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bondi, M., Grugni, G., Velardo, A.et al. (1999). Adrenomedullary response to caffeine in prepubertal and pubertal obese subjects. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 23, 992–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boomsma, F., Alberts, G., Eijk, L., Man in't Veld, A. J. and Schalekamp, M. A. (1993). Optimal collection and storage conditions for catecholamine measurements in human plasma and urine. Clinical Chemistry, 39, 2503–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Brown, D. E. (1981). General stress in anthropological fieldwork. American Anthropologist, 83, 74–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, D. E. (1982). Physiological stress and culture change in a group of Filipino-Americans: a preliminary investigation. Annals of Human Biology, 9, 553–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, D. E. and James, G. D. (2000). Physiological stress responses in Filipino-American immigrant nurses: the effects of residence time, life-style, and job strain. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 394–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calaresu, F. R. and Yardley, C. P. (1988). Medullary basal sympathetic tone. Annual Review of Physiology, 50, 511–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Callingham, B. A. (1975). Catecholamines in blood. In Handbook of Physiology: Section 7. Endocrinology. Volume VI. Adrenal Gland, ed. Greep, R. O. and Astwood, E. B.. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society, pp. 427–45.Google Scholar
Calogero, A. E., Galluci, W. T., Chrousos, G. P. and Gold, P. W. (1988). Catecholamine effects upon rat hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone secretion in vitro. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 82, 839–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, W. B. (1915) Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Functions of Emotional Excitement. New York: Appleton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carruthers, M. (1976). Biochemical responses to environmental stress. In Man in Urban Environments, ed. Harrison, G. A. and Gibson, J. B.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 247–73.Google Scholar
Carruthers, M., Taggert, P., Conway, N., Bates, D. and Somerville, W. (1970). Validity of plasma catecholamine estimation. Lancet, 2, 62–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charmandari, E., Kino, T., Souvatzoglou, E. and Chrousos, G. P. (2003). Pediatric stress: hormonal mediators and human development. Hormone Research, 59, 161–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chrousos, G. P. and Gold, P. W. (1992). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders: overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 1244–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, A. and Frankenhaeuser, M. (1978). Stress responses in male and female engineering students. Journal of Human Stress, 4, 43–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, L., Vandongen, R. and Beilin, L. J. (1981). Effect of eating bananas on plasma free and sulfate-conjugated catecholamines. Life Science, 29, 1773–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, A. and Lefkowitz, R. (1984). Regulation of beta-adrenergic receptors by steroid hormones. Annual Review of Physiology, 46, 119–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dijkstra, I., Binnekade, R. and Tilders, F. J. H. (1996). Diurnal variation in resting levels of corticosterone is not mediated by variation in adrenal responsiveness to adrenocorticotrophin but involves splanchnic nerve integrity. Endocrinology, 137, 540–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dimsdale, J. E. and Ziegler, M. G. (1991). What do plasma and urinary measures of catecholamines tell us about human response to stressors?Circulation, 83 (Supplement II), II-36–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Dunne, J. W., Davidson, L., Vandongen, R., Beilin, L. J. and Rogers, P. (1983). The effect of ascorbic acid on plasma sulfate conjugated catecholamines after eating bananas. Life Science, 33, 1511–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehrhart-Bornstein, M., Hinson, J. P., Bornstein, S. R., Scherbaum, W. A. and Vinson, G. P. (1998). Intraadrenal interactions in the regulation of adrenocortical steroidogenesis. Endocrine Reviews, 19, 101–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eide, I., Kolloch, R., Quattro, V.et al. (1979). Raised cerebrospinal fluid norepinephrine in some patients with primary hypertension. Hypertension, 1, 255–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eikelis, N., Schlaich, M., Aggarwal, A., Kaye, D. and Esler, M. (2003). Interactions between leptin and the human sympathetic nervous system. Hypertension, 41, 1072–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esler, M. (1993). Clinical application of noradrenaline spillover methodology: delineation of regional human sympathetic nervous responses. Pharmacological Toxicology, 73, 243–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esler, M. (1995). The sympathetic nervous system and catecholamine release and plasma clearance in normal blood pressure control, in aging, and in hypertension. In Hypertension: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management, 2nd edn, ed. Laragh, J. H. and Brenner, B. M.. New York: Raven Press, pp. 755–73.Google Scholar
Esler, M., Jennings, G., Korner, P.et al. (1988). Assessment of human sympathetic nervous system activity from measurements of norepinephrine turnover. Hypertension, 11, 3–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esler, M., Jennings, G., Lambert, G. et al. (1990). Overflow of catecholamine neurotransmitters to the circulation: source, fate and functions. Physiological Reviews, 70, 963–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Esler, M., Lambert, G., Brunner-LaRocca, H. P., Vaddadi, G. and Kaye, D. (2003). Sympathetic nerve activity and neurotransmitter release in humans: translation from pathophysiology into clinical practice. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 177, 275–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Euler, U. S. von (1967). Adrenal medullary secretion and its neural control. In Neuroendocrinology, ed. Martini, L. and Ganong, W. F.. New York: Academic Press, pp. 283–333.Google Scholar
Euler, U. S. and Lundberg, U. (1954). Effect of flying on the epinephrine excretion in air force personnel. Journal of Applied Physiology, 6, 551–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, G. W. and Carrere, S. (1991). Traffic congestion, perceived control, and psychophysiological stress among urban bus drivers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 658–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzgerald, G. A., Hossman, V., Hamilton, C. A.et al. (1979). Interindividual variation in kinetics of infused epinephrine. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 26, 669–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foote, S. L., Bloom, F. E. and Aston-Jones, G. (1983). Nucleus locus coeruleus: new evidence of anatomical and physiological specificity. Physiological Reviews, 63, 844–914.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frankenhaeuser, M. (1973). Experimental approaches to the study of human behavior as related to neuroendocrine functions. In Society, Stress and Disease, ed. Levi, L.. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 22–35.Google Scholar
Frankenhaeuser, M. (1975). Sympathetic-adrenomedullary activity, behavior and the psychosocial environment. In Research in Psychophysiology, ed. Venables, P. H. and Christie, M. J.. New York: John Wiley, pp. 71–94.Google Scholar
Frankenhaeuser, M. (1983). The sympathetic-adrenal and pituitary-adrenal response to challenge, comparisons between the sexes. In Biobehavioral Bases of Coronary Heart Disease, ed. Dembrowski, T. M., Schmidt, T. H. and Blumchen, G.. Basel: Karger, pp. 91–105.Google Scholar
Frankenhaeuser, M. and Gardell, B. (1976). Underload and overload in working life. A multidisciplinary approach. Journal of Human Stress, 2, 35–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frankenhaeuser, M. and Rissler, A. (1970) Effects of punishment on catecholamine release and efficiency of performance. Psychopharmacologia, 17, 378–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frishman, W. H. and Lazar, E. J. (1990). Reduction of mortality, sudden death and non-fatal reinfarction with β-adrenergic blockers in survivors of acute myocardial infarction: a new hypothesis regarding the cardioprotective action of β-adrenergic blockade. American Journal of Cardiology, 66, 66–70G.CrossRef
Froberg, J., Karlsson, C., Levi, L. and Lidberg, L. (1971). Physiological and biochemical stress reactions induced by psychosocial stimuli. In Society, Stress and Disease. Volume I: The Psychosocial Environment and Psychosomatic Diseases, ed. Levi, L.. London: Oxford University Press, pp. 280–95.Google Scholar
Glass, D. C. and Singer, J. E. (1972). Urban Stress. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gliner, J. A. (1972). Predictable vs. unpredictable shock: preference behavior and stomach ulceration. Physiology & Behavior, 9, 693–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, D. S. (1987). Stress-induced activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Baillière's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 1, 253–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, D. S., Lake, C. R., Chernow, B.et al. (1983). Age-dependence of hypertensive-normotensive differences in plasma norepinephrine. Hypertension, 5, 100–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, E. (1970) Work, organization, and stress. In Social Stress, ed. Levine, S. and Scotch, N.. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, pp. 54–110.Google Scholar
Güse-Behling, H., Ehrhart-Bornstein, M., Bornstein, S. R.et al. (1992). Regulation of adrenal steroidogenesis by adrenaline: expression of cytochrome P450 genes. Journal of Endocrinology, 135, 229–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyton, A. C. (1971). Textbook of Medical Physiology, 4th edn. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company.Google Scholar
Hague, C., Chen, Z., Uberti, M. and Minneman, K. P. (2003). Alpha-1 adrenergic receptor subtypes: non-identical triplets with differing dancing partners?Life Sciences, 74, 411–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanna, J. M., James, G. D. and Martz, J. (1986). Hormonal measures of stress. In The Changing Samoans: Behavior and Health in Transition, ed. Baker, P. T., Hanna, J. M. and Baker, T. S.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 203–21.Google Scholar
Harrison, G. A. (1995). The Human Biology of the English Village. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Harrison, G. A., Palmer, C. D., Jenner, D. A. and Reynolds, V. (1981). Association between rates of urinary catecholamine excretion and aspects of lifestyle among adult women in some Oxfordshire villages. Human Biology, 53, 617–33.Google Scholar
Harrison, T., Samuel, B. U., Akompong, T.et al. (2003). Erythrocyte G protein-coupled receptor signaling in malarial infection. Science, 301, 1734–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hastrup, J. L. and Light, K. C. (1984). Sex differences in cardiovascular stress responses: modulation as a function of menstrual cycle phases. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 28, 475–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hjemdahl, P. (1984). Inter-laboratory comparison of plasma catecholamine determinations using several different assays. Acta Physiologica Scandanavica, 527 (Supplement), 43–54.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoon, R. S., Sharma, S. C., Balasubramanian, V., Chadha, K. S. and Mathew, O. P. (1976). Urinary catecholamine excretion on acute exposure to high altitude (3,658 m). Journal of Applied Physiology, 41, 631–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Insel, P. A. (1996). Adrenergic receptors – evolving concepts and clinical implications. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 580–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, G. D. and Brown, D. E. (1997). The biological stress response and lifestyle: catecholamines and blood pressure. Annual Review of Anthropology, 26, 313–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, G. D., Baker, P. T., Jenner, D. A. and Harrison, G. A. (1987). Variation in lifestyle characteristics and catecholamine excretion rates among young Western Samoan men. Social Science and Medicine, 25, 981–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, G. D., Crews, D. E. and Pearson, J. (1989). Catecholamines and stress. In Human Population Biology: A Transdisciplinary Science, ed. Little, M. A. and Haas, J. D.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 280–95.Google Scholar
James, G. D., Jenner, D. A., Harrison, G. A. and Baker, P. T. (1985). Differences in catecholamine excretion rates, blood pressure and lifestyle among young Western Samoan men. Human Biology, 57, 635–47.Google ScholarPubMed
James, G. D., Schlussel, Y. R. and Pickering, T. G. (1993). The association between daily blood pressure and catecholamine variability in normotensive working women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 55–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
James, G. D., Sealey, J. E., Alderman, M.et al. (1988). A longitudinal study of urinary creatinine and creatinine clearance in normal subjects. American Journal of Hypertension, 1, 124–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Januszewicz, W., Sznajderman, M., Wocial, B., Feltynowski, T. and Klonowicz, T. (1979). The effect of mental stress on catecholamines, their metabolites and plasma renin activity in patients with essential hypertension and in healthy subjects. Clinical Science, 57, 229S–31S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenner, D. A., Harrison, G. A., Prior, I. A. M.et al. (1987). Inter-population comparisons of catecholamine excretion. Annals of Human Biology, 14, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenner, D. A., Reynolds, V. and Harrison, G. A. (1979). Population field studies of catecholamines. In Response to Stress: Occupational Aspects, ed. MacKay, C. and Cox, T.. London: IPC Science and Technology Press, pp. 112–19.Google Scholar
Jenner, D. A., Reynolds, V., Harrison, G. A. (1980). Catecholamine excretion rates and occupation. Ergonomics, 23, 237–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, R. H., Eisenhofer, G. and Lambie, D. G. (1986). The effects of acute and chronic ingestion of ethanol on the autonomic nervous system. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 18, 319–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P. P., Spraul, M., Matt, K. S.et al. (1996). Gender does not influence sympathetic neural reactivity to stress in healthy humans. American Journal of Physiology, 270, H350–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Kamimori, G. H., Penetar, D. M., Headley, D. B.et al. (2000) Effect of three caffeine doses on plasma catecholamines and alertness during prolonged wakefulness. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 56, 537–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, J. J., Lee, H. J., Han, J.-S. and Packard, M. G. (2001). Amygdala is critical for stress-induced modulation of hippocampal long-term potentiation and learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 5222–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Komesaroff, P. and Funder, J. (1994). Differential glucocorticoid effects on catecholamine responses to stress. American Journal of Physiology, 266, E118–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Kvetnansky, R., Fukuhara, K., Pacak, K.et al. (1993). Endogenous glucocorticoids restrain catecholamine synthesis and release at rest and during immobilization stress in rats. Endocrinology, 133, 1411–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lafantan, M. and Berlan, M. (1993). Fat cell adrenergic receptors and the control of white and brown fat cell function. Journal of Lipid Research, 34, 1057–91.Google Scholar
Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Leibel, R. L., Berry, E. M. and Hirsch, J. (1991). Metabolic and hemodynamic responses to endogenous and exogenous catecholamines in formerly obese subjects. American Journal of Physiology, 260, R785–91.Google ScholarPubMed
Levi, L. (1964) The stress of everyday work as reflected in productiveness, subjective feelings, and urinary output of adrenaline and noradrenaline under salaried and piece-work conditions. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 8, 199–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, G. P. (1975). Physiological mechanisms controlling secretory activity of adrenal medulla. In Handbook of Physiology: Section 7. Endocrinology. Volume VI. Adrenal Gland, ed. Greep, R. O. and Astwood, E. B.. Washington, DC: American Physiological Society, pp. 309–489.Google Scholar
Li, H.-Y., Ericsson, A. and Sawchenko, P. E. (1996). Distinct mechanisms underlie activation of hypothalamic neurosecretory neurons and their medullary catecholaminergic afferents in categorically different stress paradigms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93, 2359–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Link, R. E., Desai, K., Hein, L.et al. (1996). Cardiovascular regulation in mice lacking α2-adrenergic receptor subtypes b and c. Science, 273, 803–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lundberg, U. (1976). Urban commuting: crowdedness and catecholamine excretion. Journal of Human Stress, 2, 26–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacMillan, L. B., Hein, L., Smith, M. S., Piascik, M. T. and Limbird, L. E. (1996). Central hypotensive effects of the α2A-adrenergic receptor subtype. Science, 273, 801–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mäki, T., Toivonen, L., Koskinen, P.et al. (1998). Effect of ethanol drinking, hangover, and exercise on adrenergic activity and heart rate variability in patients with a history of alcohol-induced atrial fibrillation. American Journal of Cardiology, 82, 317–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martz, J., Hanna, J. M. and Howard, S. A. (1984). Stress in daily life. Evidence from Samoa. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 63, 191–2.Google Scholar
Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Kosten, T. R. and Harkness, L. (1988). Elevation of urinary norepinephrine/cortisol ratio in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 176, 498–502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Kosten, T. R., Ostroff, R. B. and Podd, L. (1986) Urinary free cortisol levels in post-traumatic stress disorder patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174, 145–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation and disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 840, 33–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (2003). Interacting mediators of allostasis and allostatic load: towards an understanding of resilience in aging. Metabolism, 52 (Supplement 2), 10–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S. and Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the individual: mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153, 2093–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miki, K. and Sudo, A. (1998). Effect of urine pH, storage time, and temperature on stability of catecholamines, cortisol, and creatinine. Clinical Chemistry, 44, 1759–62.Google ScholarPubMed
Nantel, F., Marullo, S., Krief, S., Strosberg, A. D. and Bouvier, M. (1994). Cell-specific down-regulation of the β3-adrenergic receptor. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 269, 13148–55.Google Scholar
Ng, A. V., Callister, R., Johnson, D. G. and Seals, D. R. (1994). Sympathetic neural reactivity to stress does not increase with age in healthy humans. American Journal of Physiology, 267, H344–53.Google Scholar
Ninomiya, I., Irasawa, A. and Nisimaru, N. (1973). Nonuniformity of sympathetic nerve activity to the skin and kidney. American Journal of Physiology, 224, 256–64.Google ScholarPubMed
Pearson, J. D., Hanna, J. M., Fitzgerald, M. H. and Baker, P. T. (1990). Modernization and catecholamine excretion of young Samoan adults. Social Science and Medicine, 31, 729–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearson, J. D., James, G. D. and Brown, D. E. (1993). Stress and changing lifestyles in the Pacific: physiological stress responses of Samoans in urban and rural settings. American Journal of Human Biology, 5, 49–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pederson, B. K. and Hoffman-Goetz, L. (2000). Exercise and the immune system: regulation, integration, and adaptation. Physiological Reviews, 80, 1055–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piascik, M. T. and Perez, D. M. (2001). α1-adrenergic receptors: new insights and directions. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 298, 403–10.Google ScholarPubMed
Polefrone, J. M. and Manuck, S. B. (1987). Gender differences in cardiovascular and neuroendocrine response to stressors. In Gender and Stress, ed. Barnett, R. C., Biener, L. and Barach, G. K.. New York: Free Press, pp. 13–38.Google Scholar
Psaty, B. M., Smith, N. L., Siscovick, D. S.et al. (1997). Health outcomes associated with antihypertensive therapies used as first-line agents. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277, 739–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, V., Jenner, D. A., Palmer, C. D. and Harrison, G. A. (1981). Catecholamine excretion rates in relation to life-styles in the male population of Oxmoor, Oxfordshire. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 197–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapolsky, R. M. (1994). Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers: A Guide to Stress, Stress-Related Diseases, and Coping. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.Google Scholar
Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, M. and Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 55–89.Google ScholarPubMed
Sawchenko, P. E., Li, H.-Y. and Ericsson, A. (2000). Circuits and mechanisms governing hypothalamic responses to stress: a tale of two paradigms. Progress in Brain Research, 122, 61–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmitt, L. H., Harrison, G. A. and Spargo, R. M. (1998). Variation in epinephrine and cortisol excretion rates associated with behavior in an Australian aboriginal community. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 106, 249–53.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitt, L. H., Harrison, G. A., Spargo, R. M., Pollard, T. and Ungpakorn, G. (1995). Patterns of cortisol and adrenaline variation in Australian aboriginal communities of the Kimberley region. Journal of Biosocial Science, 27, 107–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schommer, N. C., Hellhammer, D. H. and Kirschbaum, C. (2003). Dissociation between reactivity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system to repeated psychosocial stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 450–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverberg, A. B., Shah, S. D., Haymond, M. W. and Cryer, P. E. (1978). Norepinephrine: hormone and neurotransmitter in man. American Journal of Physiology, 234, E252–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Sowers, J. R., Whitfield, L. A., Catania, R. A.et al. (1982). Role of the sympathetic nervous system in blood pressure maintenance in obesity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 54, 1181–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinedi, E., Johnston, C. A., Chisari, A. and Negro-Vilar, A. (1988). Role of central epinephrine on the regulation of corticotrophin releasing factor and adrenocorticotrophin secretion. Endocrinology, 122, 1977–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tatarani, P. A., Young, J. B., Bogardus, C. and Ravussin, E. (1997). A low sympathoadrenal activity is associated with body weight gain and development of central adiposity in Pima Indian men. Obesity Research, 5, 341–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terrazzino, S., Perego, C. and Simoni, M. G. (1995). Effect of development of habituation to restraint stress on hypothalamic noradrenaline release and adrenocorticotrophin secretion. Journal of Neurochemistry, 65, 263–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tersman, Z., Collins, A. and Eneroth, P. (1991). Cardiovascular responses to psychological and physiological stressors during the menstrual cycle. Psychosomatic Medicine, 53, 185–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Victor, R. G., Leimbach, W. N. Jr., Seals, D. R., Wallin, B. G. and Mark, A. L. (1987). Effects of the cold pressor test on muscle sympathetic nerve activity in humans. Hypertension, 9, 429–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, J. F., Collins, L. C., Rowell, P. P.et al. (1999). The effect of smoking on energy expenditure and plasma catecholamine and nicotine levels during light physical activity. Nicotine Tobacco Research, 1, 365–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallin, B. G., Sundlöv, G., Eriksson, B.-M.et al. (1981). Plasma noradrenaline correlates to sympathetic muscle nerve activity in normotensive man. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 111, 69–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ward, M. and Mefford, I. N. (1985). Methodology of studying the catecholamine response to stress. In Clinical and Methodological Issues in Cardiovascular Psychophysiology, ed. Steptoe, A., Ruddel, H. and Neus, H.. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 131–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wasilewska, E., Kobus, E. and Bargiel, Z. (1980). Urinary catecholamine excretion and plasma dopamine-beta-hydroxylase activity in mental work performed in two periods of menstrual cycle in women. In Catecholamines and Stress: Recent Advances, ed. Usdin, E., Kvetnansky, R. and Kopin, I. J.. New York: Elsevier, pp. 549–54.Google Scholar
Wassell, J., Reed, P., Kane, J. and Weinkove, C. (1999). Freedom from drug interference in new immunoassays for urinary catecholamines and metanephrines. Clinical Chemistry, 45, 2216–23.Google ScholarPubMed
Welch, B. L. and Welch, A. S. (eds.) (1969). Physiological Effects of Noise. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, D. J., Thompson, J. M., Lambert, G. W.et al. (1998). Sympathetic activity in patients with panic disorder at rest, under laboratory mental stress, and during panic attacks. Archives General Psychiatry, 55, 511–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yehuda, R., Southwick, S., Giller, E. L., Ma, X. and Mason, J. W. (1992). Urinary catecholamine excretion and severity of PTSD symptoms in Vietnam combat veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 321–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziegler, M., Kennedy, B. and Elayan, H. (1989). Rat renal epinephrine synthesis. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 84, 1130–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ziegler, M. G., Lake, C. R. and Kopin, I. J. (1976). Plasma noradrenaline increases with age. Nature, 261, 333–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×