Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-p2v8j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-04T02:16:40.828Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Complexity and Sustainability: Perspectives from the Ancient Maya and the Modern Balinese

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Vernon L. Scarborough  and
William R. Burnside
Vernon L. Scarborough
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Cincinnati
William R. Burnside
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, University of New Mexico
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Complexity is both a buzzword and a paradigm in the biophysical sciences and, increasingly, the social sciences. We define “social complexity” as the nonlinear escalation of costs and emergent infrastructure with rising energy use and concentrated power as societies develop. Two paths to social complexity are technotasking, which relies on technological break-throughs and is often politically hierarchical, and labortasking, which relies on skilled labor pools and is often heterarchical. We suggest several pathways to greater degrees of complexity and present two case studies emphasizing the role of labor-tasking; an in-depth review of the ancient Maya and a shorter introduction to the recent Balinese. Both of these complex societies used labortasking to adapt to local ecological limitations in semitropical settings. These societies used heterarchical organizations to accretionally engineer and manage their environments, strategies that promoted long-term resilience. Case studies such as these provide a nuanced picture of different paths to social complexity and highlight their relative costs, benefits, and potential for long-term sustainability.

Resumen

Resumen

El concepto de complejidad es definido como una consigna y un paradigma en las ciencias biofísicas y cada vez más en las ciencias sociales. Definimos la complejidad social como el incremento no-linear de costos e infraestructura emergente con incrementos en el uso de energía y el poder concentrado que esta ligado al desarrollo de las sociedades. Una de las dos direcciones hacia la complejidad social es la faena tecnológica (technotasking), la cual consiste en adelantos tecnológicos y a menudo es políticamente jerárquica; y (labortasking) la tarea laboral la cual consiste en trabajo especializado que es a menudo heterarquico. Algunas trayectorias hacia el incremento en el grado de complejidad son propuestas en este artículo. Además, dos estudios de casos que acentúan el rol de la tarea laboral (labortasking) son presentados en este estudio. Una retrospección a fondo sobre los antiguos Mayas y una corta introducción sobre el caso actual Balines son ejemplos de sociedades complejas que usaron (labortasking) la tarea laboral para adaptarse a las limitaciones ecológicas locales de su medio ambiente, ambas en zonas semi-tropicales. Estas sociedades emplearon organizaciones heterargicas para gradualmente ingeniar y controlar su medio ambiente, estas son estrategias que ofrecen intransigencia a largo plazo. Los estudios de casos subrayan el costo relativo y los beneficios de las diferentes direcciones hacia la complejidad social y su relación con sustentabilidad.

Type
Forum
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 75 , Issue 2 , April 2010 , pp. 327 - 363
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abrams, Elliot M. 1994 How the Maya Built their World: Energetics and Ancient Architecture. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Adams, Richard E. W., Robichaux, H. R., Valdez, Fred Jr, Houk, Brett A., and Mathews, Ruth 2004 Transformations, Periodicity, and Urban Development in the Three Rivers Region. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 324–341. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Andrews, E. Wyllys, and Fash, William L. (editors) 2005 Copan: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Ansetmetti, Flavio S., Hodell, David A., Ariztegui, Danieal, Brenner, Mark, and Rosemeier, Michael F. 2007 Quantification of Soil Erosion Rates related to Ancient Maya Deforestation. Geology 35(10):915–918.Google Scholar
Arco, Lee J., and Abrams, Elliot M. 2006 An Essay on Energetics: The Construction of the Aztec Chinampa System. Antiquity 80:906–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ardika, I. Wayan, and Bellwood, Peter 1991 Sembiran: The Beginnings of India Contact with Bali. Antiquity 65:221–232.Google Scholar
Ardika, I. Wayan, and Beratha, Ni Luh Sutjiati 1996 Perajin Pada Masa Bali Kuna Abad IX-XI Masehi. Fakultas Sastra Universitas Udayana, Denpasar.Google Scholar
Arthur, W.B. 1999 Complexity and the Economy. Science 284:107–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashmore, Wendy, Yaeger, Jason, and Robins, Cynthia 2004 Commoner Sense: Late and Terminal Classic Social Strategies in the Xunantunich Area. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 302–323. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Baines, John, and Yoffee, Norman 1998 Order, Legitimacy, and Wealth in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. In Archaic States, edited by G. M. Feinman and J. Marcus, pp. 199–260. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Bak, P., and Chen, K. 1991 Self-Organized Criticality. Scientific American 264(1):46–53.Google Scholar
Balee, William, and Erickson, Clark L. (editors) 2006 Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Barabasi, Albert-Laszlo 2002 Linked. Penguin, New York.Google Scholar
Beach, Timothy, Luzzadder-Beach, Sheryl, Dunning, Nicholas and Cook, Duncan 2008 Human and Natural Impacts on Fluvial and Karst Depressions of the Maya Lowlands. Geomorphology 101:308–331.Google Scholar
Bechtel, W., and Richardson, R. C. 1993 Discovering Complexity. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Beddoe, Rachael, Costanza, Robert, Farley, Joshua, Garza, Eric, Kent, Jennifer, Kubiszewski, Ida, Martinez, Luz, McCowen, Tracy, Murphy, Kathleen, Myers, Norman, Ogden, Zach, Stapleton, Kevin, and Woodward, John 2009 Overcoming Systemic Roadblocks to Sustainability: The Evolutionary Redesign of Worldviews, Institutions, and Technologies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(8):2483–2489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beetz, Carl P., and Satterthwaite, Linton 1981 The Monuments and Inscriptions of Caracol, Belize. University of Pennsylvania Museum Monograph 45. Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Bentley, G. Carter 1986 Indigenous States of Southeast Asia. Annual Review of Anthropology 15:275–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentley, R. Alexander 2003 An Introduction to Complex Systems. In Complex Systems and Archaeology, edited by R. A. Bentley and H. D. G. Maschner, pp. 9–23. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Bettencourt, Luis M.A., Lobo, J., Helbing, D., Kuhnert, C., and West, G.B. 2007 Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:301–7306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bloom, P.R., Pohl, Mary D., and Stein, Julie 1985 Analysis of Sedimentation and Agriculture along the Rio Hondo, northern Belize. In Prehistoric Lowland Maya Environment and Subsistence Economy, edited by M. D. Pohl, pp. 21–34. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, vol 77, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Braswell, Geoffrey E. (editor) 2003 The Maya and Teotihuacán: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interactions. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Braswell, Geoffrey E., Gunn, Joel D., Carrasco, Maria del Rosario Dominguez, Folan, William J., Fletcher, Loraine A., Lopez, Abel Morales, and Glascock, Michael D. 2004 Defining the Terminal Classic at Calakmul, Campeche. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 162–194. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Broda, J., Carrasco, D., and Matos M., E. 1982 The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan; Center and Periphery in the Aztec World. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Brown, J. H., Gupta, V. J., Li, B., Milne, B. T., Restrepo, C., and West, G. B. 2002 The Fractal Nature of Nature: Power Laws, Ecological Complexity, and Biodiversity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 357:619–626.Google Scholar
Butzer, Karl W. 1993 No Eden in the New World. Nature 362:15–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butzer, Karl W. 1996 Ecology in the Long View: Settlement Histories, Agrosystemic Strategies, and Ecological Performance. Journal of Field Archaeology 23:141–150.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Steve, Walker, Brian, Marty Anderies, J., and Abel, Nick 2001 From Metaphor to Measurement: Resilience of What to What? Ecosystems 4:765–781.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 1987 Investigations at Classic Maya City of Caracol, Belize: 1985–1987. PARI Monograph 3.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 2001 Ancient Maya Causeways and Site Organization at Caracol, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 12:273–81.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 2004 Terminal Classic Status-Linked Ceramics and the Maya “Collapse:” De Facto Refuse at Caracol, Belize. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A.A. Demarest, P.M. Rice, and D.S. Rice, pp. 342–366. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Chase Arlen, F. and Rice, Prudence M. (editors) 1985 The Lowland Maya Postclassic. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 2004 Hermeneutics, Transitions, and Transformations in Classic to Postclassic Maya Society. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A.A. Demarest, P.M. Rice, and D.S. Rice, pp. 12–27. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Chayanov, A.V. 1966 On the Theory of Non-Capitalist Economic Systems. In On the Theory of Peasant Economy, edited by D. Thorner, pp. 1–13. Richard D. Irvin, Homewood, Illinois.Google Scholar
Chmilar, Jennifer 2005 Ancient Maya Water Management: Archaeological Investigations at Turtle Pond, Northwestern Belize. M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Cincinnati.Google Scholar
Cliff, Maynard B. 1988 Domestic Architecture and the Origin of Complex Society at Cerros. In Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past, edited by R.R. Wilk and W. Ashmore, pp. 199–226. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Cobos Palma, Rafael 2004 Chichen Itza: Settlement and hegemony during the Terminal Classic Period. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A.A. Demarest, P.M. Rice, and D.S. Rice, pp. 517–544. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Coe, Michael D. 1992 Breaking the Maya Code. Thames and Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Coe, Michael D. 2003 Angkor andthe Khmer Civilization. Thames and Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Coe, William R. 1990 Excavations in the Great Plaza, North Terrace and North Acropolis of Tikal. Tikal Report No. 14. The University Museum. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Costanza, Robert, Graumlich, Lisa J., and Steffen, Will (editors) 2006 Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated History and Future of People on Earth (IHOPE). Dahlem Workshop Report 96R. MIT Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Costanza, Robert, Wainger, Lisa, Folke, Carl, and Maler, Karl-Goran 1993 Modeling Complex Ecological Economic Systems. Bioscience 43(8):545–555.Google Scholar
Cronon, William 1983 Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Hill and Wang, New York.Google Scholar
Crumley, Carole L. 1995 Heterachy and the Analysis of Complex Societies. In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by R. M. Ehrenreich, C. L. Crumley, and J. E. Levy, pp. 1–6. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, no. 6. Arlington, Virginia.Google Scholar
Crumley, Carole L. 2003 Alternative Forms of Social Order. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East- Central Yucatan Peninsula. edited by VL. Scarborough, et al., pp. 136–45. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Culbert, T. Patrick 1977 Maya Development and Collapse: An Economic Perspective. In Social Process in Maya Prehistory, edited by N. Hammond, pp. 510–530. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Culbert, T. Patrick, and Rice, Don S. (editors) 1990 Precolumbidn Population History in the Maya Lowlands. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Curtis, Jason H., Brenner, Mark, Hodell, David A., Balser, Richard A, lslebe, Gerald A., and Hooghiemstra, Henry 1998 A Multi-Proxy Study of Holocene Environmental Change in the Maya Lowlands of Peten, Guatemala. Journal of Paleolimnology 19:139–159.Google Scholar
Deevey, E.S., Rice, D.S., Rice, P.M., Vaughan, H.H., Brenner, M., and Flannery, M.S. 1979 Maya Urbanism: Impact on a Tropical Karst Environment. Science 206:298–306.Google Scholar
Demarest, Arthur A. 2004 After the Maelstrom: Collapse of the Classic Maya Kingdoms and the Terminal Classic in Western Peten. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse. Transition and Transformation, edited by A.A. Demarest. P.M. Rice, and D.S. Rice, pp. 102–124. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Demarest Arthur, A., O'Mansky, Matt. Wolley, Claudia, Tuerenhout, Dirk Van, Inomata, Takeshi, Palka, Joel, and Escobedo, Hector 1997 Classic Maya Defensive Systems and Warfare in the Petexbatun Region: Archaeological Evidence and Interpretations. Ancient Mesoamerica 8(2):229–253.Google Scholar
Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S. 2004 The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Assessing Collapses, Terminations, and Transformations. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D.S. Rice, pp. 545–572. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Demarest, Arthur A., Rice, Prudence M., and Rice, Don S. (editors) 2004 The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Diamond, Jared 2005 Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Viking Books, New York.Google Scholar
Douglas, Mary 1986 How Institutions Think. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.Google Scholar
Dumarcay, Jacques 1986 The Temples of Java. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas, and Beach, Timothy 2000 Stability and Instability in Prehispanic Maya Landscapes. In An Imperfect Balance: Precolumbian New World Ecosystems, edited by D. Lentz, pp. 179–202. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas, Jones, John G., Beach, Timothy, and Sheryl-Luzzadder-Beach, 2003 Physiography, Habitats, and Landscapes of the Three River Region. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya, edited by V.L. Scarborough, F. Valdez, Jr., and N. Dunning, pp. 14–24. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas, Luzzadder-Beach, Sheryl, Jones, John, Scarborough, Vernon L., and Patrick Culbert, T. 2002 Arising from the Bajos: Anthropogenic Change in Wetlands and the Rise of Maya Civilization. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92:267–83.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas, Scarborough, Vernon L., Valdez, Fred Jr., Luzzadder-Beach, Sheryl, Beach, Timothy, and Jones, John G. 1999 Temple Mountains, Sacred Lakes, and Fertile Fields: Ancient Maya Landscapes in Northwestern Belize. Antiquity 73:650–660.Google Scholar
Evans, Damian, Pottier, Christophe, Fletcher, Roland, Hensley, Scott, Tapley, Ian, Milne, Anthony, and Barbetti, Michael 2007 A Comprehensive Archaeological Map of the World's Largest Preindustrial Settlement Complex at Angkor, Cambodia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104:14277–14282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fash, Barbara W. 2005 Iconographic Evidence for Water management and Social Organization at Copan. In Copan: The History of an Ancient Maya Kingdom, edited by E.W. Andrews and W.L. Fash, pp. 103–138. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.Google Scholar
Fash, William L., Wyllys Andrews, E., and Kam Manahan, T. 2004 Political Decentralization, Dynastic Collapse, and Early Postclassic in the Urban Center of Copan, Honduras. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 260–287. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Fisher, C.T., Pollard, Helen P., Israde-Alcantara, Isabel, Garduno-Monroy, Victor H., and Banerjee, Subir K. 2003 A Reexamination of Human-induced Environmental Change within the Lake Patzcuaro Basin, Michoacan, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100(8):4957–4962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fletcher, Roland 2000 Seeing Angkor: New Views on an Old City. Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia 32–33:1–27.Google Scholar
Fletcher, Roland 2003 Redefining Angkor: Structure and Environment I the Largest Low Density Urban Complex of the Pre-Industrial World. Udaya (Journal of Khmer Studies) 4:107–125.Google Scholar
Folan, William J., Marcus, Joyce, Pincemin, S., and Carrasco, M., Fletcher, L., and Morales, A. 1995a Calakmul: New Data from an Ancient Maya Capital in Campeche, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 6:310–34.Google Scholar
Folan, William J., Marcus, Joyce, and Miller, W. F. 1995b Verification of a Maya Settlement Model through Remote Sensing. Cambridge Archaeology Journal 5:277–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Folke, Carl, Carpenter, Steve, Walker, Brian, Scheffer, Marten, Elmqvist, Thomas, Gunderson, Lance, and Holling, C.S. 2004 Regime Shifts, Resilience, and Biodiversity in Ecosystem Management. Annual Review in Ecology and Evolutionary Systematics 35:557–581.Google Scholar
Freidel, David, Scheie, Linda, and Parker, Joy 1993 Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman's Path. William Morrow, New York.Google Scholar
Garrison, Thomas, and Dunning, Nicholas P. 2009 Settlement, Environment, and Politics in the San Bartolo-Xultun Territory, El Peten, Guatemala. Latin American Antiquity 20:525–552.Google Scholar
Geertz, Clifford 1980 Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.Google Scholar
Gell-Mann, Murray 1995 What Is Complexity? Complexity 1(1):16–19.Google Scholar
Gill, R.B. 2000 The Great Maya Drought. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Gill, Richardson B., Mayewski, Paul A., Nyberg, Johan, Haug, Gerald H., and Peterson, Larry C. 2007 Drought and the Maya Collapse. Ancient Mesoamerica 18:283–302.Google Scholar
Goris, Roelof 1954 Prasasti Bali: Inscripties voor Anak Wungcu. N.V. Masa Baru, Bandung Google Scholar
Gunderson, L. H., and Holling, C. S. (editors) 2002 Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Gunn, J., Folan, W. J., and Robichaux, R. 1995 A Landscape Analysis of the Canderlaria Watershed in Mexico: Insights into Paleoclimates affecting Upland Horticulture in the Southern Yucatan Peninsular Semi-Karst. Geoarchaeology 10:3–42.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Tourtellot, Gair 2004 Out with a Whimper: La Milpa in the Terminal Classic. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 288–301. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Hansen, Richard D., Bozarth, Stephen, Jacob, John, Wahl, D., and Schreiner, T. 2002 Climatic and Environmental Variability in the Rise of Maya Civilization: A Preliminary Perspective from Northern Peten. Ancient Mesoamerica 13:273–295.Google Scholar
Harrison, Peter D. 1999 The Lords ofTikal: Rulers of an Ancient Maya City. Thames and Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Hatch Popenoe, Marion 1997 Kaminaljuyu/San Jorge: Evidencia arqueologica de la actividad economica en el Voile de Guatemala 300 a. C. a 300 d.C. Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Haug, Gerald H., Gunther, Detlef, Peterson, Larry C., Sigman, Daniel M., Hughen, Konrad A., and Aeschlimann, Beat 2003 Climate and the Collapse of Maya Civilization. Science 299:1731–1735.Google Scholar
Hauser-Schaublin, Brigitta 2003 The Precolonial Balinese State Reconsidered: A Critical Evaluation of Theory Construction on the Relationship between Irrigation, the State, and Ritual. Current Anthropology 44(2): 153–170.Google Scholar
Haviland, William A. 1966 Maya Settlement Patterns: A Critical Review. In Archaeological Studies in Middle America, edited M.A. Harrison and R. Wauchope, pp. 21–47. Middle American Research Institute, pub. 26. Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Heckenberger, Michael 2006 History, Ecology, and Alterity: Visualizing Polity in Ancient Amazonia. In Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology, edited by W. Balee and C.L. Erickson, pp. 311–340. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Hegmon, Michelle, Peeples, Matthew A., Kinzig, Ann P., Kulow, Stephanie, Meegan, Cathryn M., and Nelson, Margaret C. 2008 Social Transformation and its Human Costs in the Prehispanic U.S. Southwest. American Anthropologist 110:313–324.Google Scholar
Hodell, David A., Curtis, Jason H., Brenner, Mark 1995 Possible Role of Climate in the Collapse of Classic Maya Civilization. Nature 375: 391–394.Google Scholar
Hodell, David A., and Guilderson, T. 2001 Solar Forcing of Drought Frequency in the Maya Lowlands. Science 292:1367–1370.Google Scholar
Holland, J. 1995 Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Holling, C. S. 1973 Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:1–23.Google Scholar
Holling, C. S. 2001 Understanding the Complexity of Economic, Ecological and Social Systems. Ecosystems 4:390–405.Google Scholar
Holling, C. S., and Gunderson, L. H. 2002 Resilience and Adaptive Cycles. In Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems, edited by L.H. Gunderson and C.S. Holling, pp. 25–62. Island Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Hosier, Dorothy, Sabloff, Jeremy A., and Runge, Dale 1977 Simulation Model Development: A Case Study of the Classic Maya. In Social Process in Maya Prehistory, edited by N. Hammond, pp. 553–590. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Houk, Brett A. 2003 The Ties that Bind: Site Planning in the Three Rivers Region. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, andthe Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East- Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by V.L. Scarborough et al., pp. 52–63. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Houston, Stephen D., Robertson, John, and Stuart, David 2000 The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions. Current Anthropology 41(3):321–356.Google Scholar
Hubler, Alfred W. 2005 Predicting Complex Systems with a Holistic Approach. Complexity 10(3):11–16.Google Scholar
Hyde, David M., Fischbeck, Shelley, and Trachman, Rissa 2006 Report of Excavations at the Medicinal Trail Site for the 2005 Season. In Programme for Belize Archaeological Project Report of Activities for the 2005 Field Season, edited by F. Valdez, pp. 7–16. Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory Occasional Paper, No. 6. University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Jacob, John S. 1995a Archaeological Pedology in the Maya Lowlands. In Pedological Perspectives in Archaeological Research, edited by D.M. Krai, pp. 51–79. Soil Science Society of America, Special Publication 44. Madison, WI.Google Scholar
Jacob, John S. 1995b Ancient Maya Wetland Agricultural Fields in Cobweb Swamp, Belize: Construction, Chronology, and Function. Journal of Field Archaeology 22:175–90.Google Scholar
Johnston, Kevin J. 2004 The “Invisible” Maya: Minimally Mounded Residential Settlement at Itzan, Peten, Guatemala. Latin American Antiquity 15(2):145–175.Google Scholar
Kauffman, Stuart 1993 The Origins of Order: Self Organization and Selection in Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Kauffman, Stuart 1995 At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Keesing, R.M. 1974 Theories of Culture. Annual Review of Anthropology 3:73–97.Google Scholar
Kempers, A.J. Bernet 1991 Monumental Bali. Periplus Editions, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Kohler, Timothy A., and Gumerman, George J. (editors) 2000 Dynamics in Human and Primate Societies: Agent-Based Modeling of Social and Spatial Processes. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Krech, Sheppard III. 1999 The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. W.W. Norton, New York.Google Scholar
Kunen, Julie L. 2004 Ancient Maya Life in the Far West Bajo: Social and Environmental Change in the Wetlands of Belize. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona, no. 69. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Lansing, J. Stephen 1991 Priests and Programmers: Technologies of Power in the Engineered Landscape of Bali. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.Google Scholar
Lansing, J. Stephen 1995 The Balinese. Harcourt Brace, New York.Google Scholar
Lansing, J. Stephen 2003a Complex Adaptive Systems. Annual Reviews in Anthropology 32:183–204.Google Scholar
Lansing, J. Stephen 2003b Comment on “The Precolonial Balinese State Reconsidered: A Critical Evaluation of Theory Construction on the Relationship between Irrigation, the State, and Ritual” by Brigitta Hauser-Schaublin. Current Anthropology 44(2): 171–2.Google Scholar
Lansing, J. Stephen 2006 Perfect Order: Recognizing Complexity in Bali. University of Princeton Press, Princeton, NJ.Google Scholar
Lansing, J. Stephen, and Kremer, James N. 1993 Emergent Properties of Balinese Water Temples. American Anthropologist 95: 97–114.Google Scholar
Lansing, J. Stephen, Schoenfelder, John, and Scarborough, Vernon 2006 Rappaport's Rose: Structure, Agency, and Historical Contingency in Ecological Anthropology. In Reimagining Political Ecology, edited by A. Biersack and J.B. Green-berg, pp. 325–357. Duke University Press, Durham.Google Scholar
Levin, Simon A. 1998 Ecosystems and the B iosphere are Complex Adaptive Systems. Ecosystems 1:431–436.Google Scholar
Levin, Simon A. 1999 Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons. Perseus Books, Reading, MA.Google Scholar
Lockhart, J. 1992 The Nahuas after the Conquest. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA.Google Scholar
Lucero, Lisa J. 2007 Classic Maya Temples, Politics, and the Voice of the People. Latin American Antiquity 18:407–27.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1990 Water Storage in the Puuc Region of the Northern Maya Lowlands: A Key to Population Estimates and Architectural Variability. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T.P. Culbert and D. S. Rice, pp. 263–284. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. (editor) 2004 K'axob: Ritual, Work, and Family in an Ancient Maya Village. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
McCabe, Thomas J. 1976 A complexity measure. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering SE–2(4):308–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGlade, J., and van der Leeuw, S.E. 1997 Introduction: Archaeology and Non-Linear Dynamics: New Approaches to Long-Term Change. In Time, Process, and Structured Transformations in Archaeology, edited by S.E. van der Leeuw and J. McGlade, pp. 1–31. One World Archaeology, volume 26. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
McGuire, Randall H. 1983 Breaking Down Cultural Complexity: Inequality and Heterogeneity. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 91–142.Google Scholar
Mcintosh, Roderick J., Tainter, Joseph A., and Mcintosh, Susan K. (editors) 2000 The Way the Wind Blows: Climate, History, and Human Action. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
McKillop, Heather 2003 Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya. University Press of Florida, Gainsville.Google Scholar
McMichael, Anthony J., Bolin, Bert, Costanza, Robert, Daily, Gretchen C., Folke, Carl, Lindahl-Kiesslig, Kerstin, Lindgren, Elisabet, and Niklasson, Bol 1999 Globalization and the Sustainability of Human Health: An Ecological Perspective. Bioscience 49(3):205–210.Google Scholar
Mandelbrot, B.B 1982 The Fractal Geometry of Nature. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Marcus, Joyce 1993 Ancient Maya Political Organization. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by J.A. Sabloff and J.S. Henderson, pp. 111–83. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Marcus, Joyce 1998 The Peaks and Valleys of Ancient States: An Extension of the Dynamic Model. In Archaic States, edited by G.M. Feinman and J. Marcus, pp. 59–94. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon, and Grube, Nicoli 2000 Chronicle of Maya Kings and Queens. Thames and Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Matheny, Raymond T. 1987 El Mirador: An Early Maya Metropolis Uncovered. National Geographic 172:316–339.Google Scholar
May, R. M. 1973 Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.Google Scholar
Miksic, John N. 1990 Borobudur. Golden Tales of the Buddhas. Periplus Editions, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Miksic, John N. 1996 Ancient History: Indonesia Heritagel. Budu Antar Bangsa for Grolier International, Jakarta.Google Scholar
Miksic, John N. 1999 Water, Urbanization, and Disease in Ancient Indonesia. In Complex Polities in the Ancient Tropical World, edited by E. A. Bacus and L.J. Lucero, pp. 167–184. American Anthropological Association, Washington D.C.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Melanie 2009 Complexity: A Guided Tour. Oxford University, Oxford.Google Scholar
Newman, M.E.J. 2001 The Structure of Scientific Collaboration Networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:404–409.Google Scholar
Nicolis, G., and Prigogine, I. 1977 Self-Organization in Non-Equilibrium Systems: From Dissipative Structures to Order through Fluctuation. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
O'Hara, S. L., Street-Perrott, F. A., Burt, T. P. 1993 Accelerated Soil Erosion Around a Mexican Highland Lake Caused by Prehispanic Agriculture. Nature 362:48–51.Google Scholar
O'Mansky, Matt, and Dunning, Nicholas P. 2004 Settlement and Late Classic Political Disintegration in the Petexbatun Region, Guatemala. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 83–101. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Padoch, C., Harwell, E., and Susanto, A. 1998 Swidden, Sawah, and In-Between: Agricultural Transformation in Borneo. Human Ecology 26:3–20.Google Scholar
Park, T.K. (editor) 1993 Risk and Tenure in Arid Lands: The Political Ecology of Development in the Senegal River Basin. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1981 Lamanai, Belize: Summary of Excavation results, 1974–1980. Journal of Field Archaeology 8(1):29–53.Google Scholar
Pimm, S. L. 1984 The Complexity and Stability of Ecosystems. Nature 307:321–326.Google Scholar
Pohl, Mary D. (editor) 1990 Ancient Maya Wetland Agriculture: Excavations on Albion Island, Northern Belize. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Pohl, M. D., Pope, K.O., Jones, J. G., Jacob, J. S., Piperno, D. R., De France, S. D., Lentz, D., Gifford, A., Danforth, M. E., and Josserand, J. K. 1996 Early Agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Latin American Antiquity 7:355–372.Google Scholar
Prigogine, Ilya 1980 From Being to Becoming: Time and Complexity in the Physical Sciences. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Puleston, Dennis E. 1983 The Settlement Survey of Tikal: Tikal Report, no. 13. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadephia.Google Scholar
Puleston, Dennis E., and Puleston, Olga S. 1971 An Ecological Approach to the Origins of Maya Civilization. Archaeology 24:330–337.Google Scholar
Reconnaissance Soil Map for the Bali Irrigation Project 1985 Report to the Minister of Public Works, Directorate General of Water Resources, Directorate of Irrigation, Bali Irrigation Project. Udayana University, Faculty of Agriculture, Denpasar.Google Scholar
Redman, Charles L. 2005 Resilience in Archaeology. American Anthropologist 107:70–77.Google Scholar
Redman, Charles L., and Kinzig, Ann P. 2003 Resilience of Past Landscapes: Resilience Theory, Society, and Longue Duree. Conservation Ecology 7(1):14–32.Google Scholar
Redman, Charles L., Crumley, Carole L., Hassan, Fekri, Hole, Frank, Morais, Joao, Riedel, Frank, Scarborough, Vernon L., Tainter, Joseph A., Turchin, Peter, and Yasuda, Yoshinori 2006 Group Report: Millennial Perspectives on the Dynamic Interaction of Climate, People, and Resources. In Sustainability or Collapse? Integrated History and of Future of People on Earth (IHOPE), edited by R. Costanza, L. Graumlich, and W. Steffen, pp. 115–148. Dahlem Workshop Report 96R. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Rice, Don S., and Patrick Culbert, T. 1990 Historical Contexts for Population Reconstruction in the Maya Lowlands. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T.P. Culbert and D. S Rice, pp. 1–36. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Ringle, William M., Bey, George J. III, Freeman, Tara Bond, Hanson, Craig A., Houck, Charles W., and Gregory Smith, J. 2004 The Decline of the East: The Classic to Postclassic Transition at Ek Balam, Yucatan. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 485–516. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Robertson, Robin A., and Freidel, David A. (editors) 1986 Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume I: An Interim Report. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Martínez, Rodríguez, Carmen, Ma. del, Ceballos, Ponciano Ortíz, Coe, Michael D., Diehl, Richard A., Houston, Stephen D., Taube, Karl A., Calderón, Alfredo Delgado 2006 Oldest Writing in the New World. Science 313 (5793):1610–1614.Google Scholar
Rolett, Barry, and Diamond, Jared 2004 Environmental Predictors of Pre-European Deforestation on Pacific Islands. Nature 431: 443–446.Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and Wyllys Andrews V., E. (editors) 1986 Late Lowland Maya Civilization: Classic to Post-classic. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Saturno, William 2006 The Dawn of Maya Gods and Kings. National Geographic 209(1):68–77.Google Scholar
Saturno, W., Stuart, D., and Beltran, B. 2006 Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala. Science 311:1281–84.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1983 A Preclassic Water System. American Antiquity 48(4):719–744.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1991 Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, Volume III: The Settlement System in a Late Preclassic Maya Community. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1993 Water Management in the Southern Maya Lowlands: An Accretive Model for the Engineered Landscape. In Economic Aspects of Water Management in the Prehispanic New World, edited by V. L. Scarborough and B. L. Isaac, pp. 17–69, Research in Economic Anthropology, Supplement 7. JAI Press, Greenwich.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1994 Maya Water Management. Research and Exploration 10(2): 184–199.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1998 Ecology and Ritual: Water Management and the Maya. Latin American Antiquity 8(2): 135–159.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2000 Resilience, Resource Use, and Socioeconomic Organization: A Mesoamerican Pathway. In Natural Disaster and the Archaeology of Human Response, edited by G. Bawden and R. Reycraft, pp. 195–212. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology and the University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2003a The Flow of Power: Ancient Water Systems and Landscapes. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2003b How to Interpret an Ancient Landscape. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100:4366–4368.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2005 Landscapes of Power. In A Catalyst for Ideas: Anthropological Archaeology and the Legacy of Douglas W. Schwartz, edited by V.L. Scarborough, pp.209–228. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2006 Intensification and the Political Economy: A Contextual Overview. In Agricultural Strategies, edited by J. Marcus and C. Stanish, pp.401–418. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2007a Beyond Sustainability: Managed Wetlands and Water Harvesting in Ancient Mesoamerica. In The Socio-Natural Connection: Integrating Archaeology and Environmental Studies, edited by C. T. Fisher, J. B. Hill, and G. M. Fein-man, pp.. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2007b Colonizing a Landscape: Water and Wetlands in Ancient Mesoamerica. In The Political Economy of Ancient Mesoamerica: Transformations during the Formative and Classic Periods, edited by V. L. Scarborough and J. Clark, pp.. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 2008 Rate and Process of Societal Change in Semi-tropical Settings: The Ancient Maya and the Living Balinese. Quaternary International 184:24–40.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Becher, Matthew, Baker, Jeffery, Harris, Gary, and Valdez, Fred Jr. 1995 Water and Land at the Ancient Maya Community of La Milpa, Belize. Latin American Antiquity 6(2):98–119.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Connolly, Robert and Ross, Steven 1994 The Prehispanic Maya Reservoir System at Kinal. Peten, Guatemala. Ancient Mesoamerica 5(1):97–106.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., and Gallopin, Gary 1991 A Water Storage Adaptation in the Maya Lowlands. Science 251:658–662.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Schoenfelder, John W., and Stephen Lansing, J. 1999 Early Statecraft on Bali: The Water Temple Complex and the Decentralization of the Political Economy. Research in Economic Anthropology 20:299–330.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Schoenfelder, John W., and Stephen Lansing, J. 2000 Ancient Water Management and Landscape Transformation at Sebatu, Bali. In Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 20:79–92. Canberra, Australia.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., and Valdez, Fred Jr. 2003 The Engineered Environment and Political Economy of the Three Rivers Region. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East- Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by V. L. Scarborough et al., pp.3–13. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., and Valdez, Fred Jr. 2009 An Alternate Order: The Dualistic Economies of the Ancient Maya. Latin American Antiquity, in press.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Valdez, Fred Jr., and Dunning, Nicholas 2003a Introduction. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by V. L. Scarborough, F. Valdez, Jr., and N. Dunning, pp. xii-xx. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L., Valdez, Fred Jr., and Dunning, Nicholas (editors) 2003b Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East-Central Yucatan Peninsula. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Scheie, Linda, and Freidel, David 1990 A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. William Morrow, New York.Google Scholar
Schmandt-Besserat, D. 1992 Before Writing, vol. 2. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Schoenfelder, John W. 2000 The Co-evolution of Agriculture and Sociopolitical Systems in Bali. In Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 20:79–92. Canberra, Australia.Google Scholar
Schulte Nordholt, Henk 1996 The Spell of Power: A History of Balinese Politics, 1650 - 1940. KITLV Press, Leiden.Google Scholar
Sharer, Robert J. 1977 The Maya Collapse Revisited. In Social Process in Maya Prehistory, edited by N. Hammond, pp.531–552. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Sharer, Robert J., with Traxler, Loa P. (editors) 2006 The Ancient Maya. 6th ed. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Shaw, Justine M. 2001 Maya Sacbeob: Form and Function. Ancient Mesoamerica 12:261–272.Google Scholar
Shaw, Justine M. 2008 White Roads of the Yucatan. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Silvertein, Jay, Webster, David, and Martinez, Horacio 2010 The Great Earthwork of Tikal, Guatemala: A Hydraulic Hypothesis for the Classic Maya Polity. Manuscript in possession of author.Google Scholar
Stiner, M.C., Munro, N.D., Surovell, T.A., Tchernov, E., and Bar-Yosef, O. 1999 Paleolithic Population Growth Pulses evidenced by Small Animal Exploitation. Science 283:190–194.Google Scholar
Strogatz, S.H. 2001 Exploring Complex Networks. Nature 410:268–276.Google Scholar
Stuart, Glenn 2003 Pre-Hispanic Sociopolitical Development and Wetland Agriculture in the Tequila Valley of West Mexico. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Lauren A., and Sabebiel, Kerry L. 2003 Changing Political Alliances in the Three Rivers Region. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East- Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by V.L. Scarborough et al., pp.25–36. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Tainter, Joseph A. 1988 The Collapse of Complex Societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Tainter, Joseph A. 2000 Problem Solving: Complexity, History, Sustainability. Population and Environment 22(1): 3–41.Google Scholar
Tourtellot, Gair, Belli, Francisco Estrad, Rose, John J., and Hammond, Norman 2003 Late Classic Maya Heterarchy, Hierarchy, and Landscape at La Milpa, Belize. In Heterarchy, Political Economy, and the Ancient Maya: The Three Rivers Region of the East- Central Yucatan Peninsula, edited by V. L. Scarborough et al., pp. 37–51. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Trachman, Rissa M. 2007 Excavated Households Excavated Lives: Social Reproduction, Identity, and Everyday Life for the Ancient Maya in Northwestern Belize. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Trigger, Bruce G. 2003 Understanding Early Civilization: A Comparative Study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Trombold, Charles D. (editor) 1991 Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies in the New World. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Valdes, Juan A. 2006 Water Management at Kaminaljuyu. In Precolumbian Water Management: Ideology, Ritual, and Power, edited by L.J. Lucero and B.W. Fash, pp. 67–77. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Valdes, Juan A., and Fahsen, Federico 2004 Disaster in Sight: The Terminal Classic at Tikal and Uaxactun. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 140–161. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Valdez, Fred Jr., and Mock, Shirley 1991 Additional Considerations for Prehistoric Saltmaking in Belize. American Antiquity 56:520–525.Google Scholar
Van der Leeuw, Sander E. 2007 What is an “Environmental Crisis” to an Archaeologist? In The Socio-Natural Connection: Integrating Archaeology and Environmental Studies, edited by C. T. Fisher, J. B. Hill, and G. M. Feinman. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Walling, Stanley L., Davis, Peter F., Dias, Sandra, and Vito, Melissa De 2005 Report of the 2004 Rio Bravo Archaeological Project, Site R.B. 47: Chawak But'o'ob, Belize. In Programme for Belize Archaeological Project Report of Activities for the 2004 Field Season, edited by F. Valdez, pp. 115–144. Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory Occasional Paper, No. 4. University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Walling, Stanley, Davis, Peter, Hanna, Jonathan, Matthews, Leah, Prasarn, Nahum, and Taylor, Christine 2006 Residential Terracing, Water Management, Matrix Analysis, and Suburban Ceremonialism at Chawak But'o'ob, Belize. In Programme for Belize Archaeological Project Report of Activities for the 2005 Field Season. Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory Occasional Paper, No. 6. University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Watts, D. J., and Strogatz, S. H. 1998 Collective Dynamics of ‘Small World’ Networks. Nature 393:440–442.Google Scholar
Webster, David 2002 The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. Thames and Hudson, New York.Google Scholar
Webster, David 2007 Re-evaluation of the Earthworks at Tikal, Guatemala: Phase 2. Final report submitted to the National Science Foundation. Grant BCS-0443280. Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Webster, David, Freter, Ann Corinne, and Storey, Rebecca 2004 Dating Copan Culture-History: Implications for the Terminal Classic and Collapse. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by A. A. Demarest, P. M. Rice, and D. S. Rice, pp. 231–259. University of Colorado Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Webster, David, and Kirker, Jennifer 1995 Too Many Maya, Too Few Buildings: Investigating Construction Potential at Copan, Honduras. Journal of Anthropological Research 51(4):363–387.Google Scholar
Webster, David, Murtha, Timothy, Silverstein, Jay, Straight, Kirk, Martinez, Horacio, Terry, Richard, and Burnett, Richard 2007 The Great Earthwork of Tikal Revisited. Journal of Field Archaeology.Google Scholar
Weigand, Phil C. 1993 Large-scale Hydraulic Works in Prehistoric Western Mesoamerica. In Economic Aspects of Water Management in the Prehispanic New World, edited by V.L. Scarborough and B.L. Isaac, pp. 223–62. Research in Economic Anthropology, Supplement 7. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.Google Scholar
Wiener, Margaret J. 1995 Visible and Invisible Realms: Power, Magic and Colonial Conquest in Bali. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Wilk, Richard, and Wilhite, H. 1991 The Community of Cuello: Patterns of Household and Settlement Change. In Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, edited N. Hammond, pp. 118–133. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Wilken, Gene C. 1987 Good Farmers. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R., Bullard, William R. Jr., Glass, John B., and Gifford, James C. 1965 Prehistoric Maya Settlements in the Belize Valley. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, no. 54. Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R., and Shimkin, Demitri B. 1973 The Maya Collapse: A Summary View. In The Classic Maya Collapse, edited by T. P. Culbert, pp. 457–501. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Wright, David R., Terry, Richard E. and Eberl, Markus 2009 Soil Properties and Stable Carbon Isotope Analysis of Landscape Features in the Petexbatun Region of Guatemala. Geoarchaeology 24:466–491.Google Scholar
Yaeger, Jason, and Hodell, David A. 2008 The Collapse of Maya Civilization: Assessing the Interaction of Culture, Climate, and Environment. In El Nino, Catastrophism, and Culture Change in Ancient America, edited by D.H. Sandweiss and J. Quilter, pp. 187–242. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Yoffee, Norman 2005 Myths of the Ancient State. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Zangger, Eberhard 2001 The Future of the Past: Archaeology in the 21st Century. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.Google Scholar
Zaro, Gregory, and Lohse, Jon C. 2005 Agricultural Rhythms and Rituals: Ancient Maya Solar Observation in Hinterland Blue Creek, Northwestern Belize. Latin American Antiquity 16(1):81–98.Google Scholar