We studied the effects of four non-nutrient environmental factors (temperature, salinity, irradiance and pH) on the growth inhibition of the macroalgae Ulva pertusa (Chlorophyta) upon the microalgae Heterosigma akashiwo (Rhaphidophyta). Experiments were conducted in single-factor incubation and various two-factor combination experiments in which temperature (10, 15, 25 and 30°C), salinity (10, 20, 30 and 40 g kg−1 water), irradiance (20, 100, 200 and 400 μmol m−2 s−1), and pH (5.5, 7, 8.5 and 10) were varied systematically. The growth rates of U. pertusa and H. akashiwo and the rate of microalgal growth inhibition were altered significantly by changing some of the non-nutrient factors in both the single-factor and the two-factor experiments. The optimal growth conditions for U. pertusa were 20–25°C, salinity of 30 g kg−1, irradiance level of 200–400 μmol m−2 s−1, and pH 8.5–10; optimal conditions for H. akashiwo growth were 25°C, 30 g kg−1, 100 μmol m−2 s−1 and pH 8.5, respectively. The growth inhibitory influence of U. pertusa on H. akashiwo was strongest at 25°C with low salinity (10 g kg−1), high irradiance (400 μmol m−2 s−1) and high alkalinity (pH = 10). The results of this study may be helpful in the development of methods for using green macroalgae to control the proliferation of microalgae in harmful algal blooms (HABs). In particular, these findings provide guidance regarding optimum levels of non-nutrient environmental factors in confined areas, such as aquaculture factories.

Phelloderma oxychaetoides sp. nov. is a remarkable new species from the deep Weddell Sea, bearing abundant oxychaetes (onychaete-like microxeas), morphologically distinct from the onychaetes of Tedania spp. collected in the same area. We give a redescription of the holotype of P. radiatum Ridley & Dendy, 1886, the type species of Phelloderma. We recognize three and a possible fourth species in Phelloderma: P. flava (Lévi, 1993); P. oxychaetoides sp. nov.; P. polypoides Whitelegge, 1906; and P. radiatum Ridley & Dendy, 1886. An identification key for the species of Phelloderma is proposed. A discussion on the affinities of Phelloderma to both Mycalina and Myxillina is offered, and the current preference for the latter is further supported by the marked similarity between the oxychaetes of Phelloderma oxychaetoides sp. nov. and those of Chaetodoryx spp. (Coelosphaeridae, Myxillina).

Haliclona is an unusually species-rich genus in Porifera, with more than 400 species described. In spite of many subgenera used in the taxonomic housekeeping of these sponges, over half of them remain unassigned to a subgenus, thus encouraging a wide range of redescriptions and taxonomic revisions of materials from all around the world. In this paper, we describe two new Haliclona spp. collected at Pernambuco, Alagoas and Bahia States (north-eastern Brazil, between 08°46′S and 13°56′S). Haliclona (Reniera) chlorilla sp. nov. is a dark green or black coloured, delicately-branched species; and Haliclona (Soestella) peixinhoae sp. nov., a beige-coloured, tubular species, where tubes frequently bear large thorns and possess a conspicuous sub-superficial meandering reticulation. These species highlight the importance of including ex-situ collections in compiling baseline data, as both were already present in scientific collections by the 1980s and 1990s.

Natural marks occurring in cetaceans are used to measure population parameters, social structure and movements. However, the changeable nature of these marks can originate bias in these estimates. The aim of this work was to calculate abundance and prevalence of 28 mark types observed in common minke whales and white-beaked dolphins photographed in Icelandic waters for 11 years (2002–2013) in order to identify reliable markings which could be suitable for capture-mark-recapture studies. In the common minke whale subsample the most prevalent occurring marks were cookie-cutter shark bite, notch and lamprey bite, and herpes-like lesions and blisters were the most abundant. White-beaked dolphins had notch, fin patches and fine scrape as the most prevalent, and black mark and fine scrape were the most abundant. Loss and gain rates were also estimated resulting in eight mark types with no losses in common minke whales including fin outline and injury marks. In white-beaked dolphins there were 13 mark types with null loss rate among which there were notch, distinct notch and amputation. Our findings confirm that fin and injury marks are among the most accurate features to use for capture-mark-recapture studies as noted for other cetacean species. We also suggest including cookie-cutter shark bites for common minke whales and fin patches for white-beaked dolphins due to their low loss rate. These two mark types were amongst the most prevalent in both species, so their addition will be pivotal in increasing the power of analysis conducted using photo-identification data obtaining more accurate population estimates.

This study describes for the first time the reproductive traits of the warm-water pompano, Trachinotus ovatus. Specimens were sampled from landings by artisanal fishing vessels in the NW Mediterranean. Monthly collections, from July 2010 through to September 2012, yielded 226 individuals (118 females and 108 males). The size at 50% maturity (L50) was estimated at 30.9 and 29.1 cm TL for females and males, respectively. Specific reproductive traits, such as oocyte size-frequency distributions, presence of recent post-ovulatory follicles along with oocytes in the final phases of gonadal development, and massive atresia in post-spawning individuals, indicated that pompanos are multiple batch spawners with asynchronous oocyte development and indeterminate fecundity. Monthly variations in the gonadosomatic index and in the phases of gonadal development indicated July and August as the spawning season. There were also noticeable inter-annual variations in spawning phenology, mean diameters of the oocytes, relative batch fecundity and eggs quality, all of which corresponded to changes in sea surface temperatures. This study enhances our understanding of the need for research into the reproduction of warm-water species, which are currently expanding into the increasingly warmer waters of the world's more northerly seas and oceans.

Clathria is one of the most species-rich genera among Demospongiae, but only nine species have been recorded so far from Brazil. Here we describe a new species of Clathria (Microciona) collected by trawling in waters of Sergipe State (north-eastern Brazil). The new species is differentiated from other encrusting Clathria with a hymedesmioid skeleton by the possession of a combination of long thin subectosomal subtylostyles, two category sizes of acanthostyles, both erect and echinating the basal spongin skeleton, long slightly curved choanosomal principal subtylostyles with tuberculate spine heads and wing-shaped toxas as microscleres.

Of the three species of the genus Squalus that occur in the Mediterranean Sea, S. blainville and S. megalops are very difficult to distinguish. This study assesses the variability in morphological features that have been used to differentiate between these species. Squalus were collected from stations within the 25-nautical mile Fisheries Management Zone around the Maltese Islands; 349 specimens were dissected and categorized into male and female, mature and immature, and individuals were randomly selected from each category to make up a sample of 169 specimens. For each individual, total length and first dorsal fin parameters were measured, and morphology of denticles isolated from the laterodorsal area, of the upper and lower teeth and of the chondrocranium was analysed. The first dorsal spine was shorter that the fin base in 93% of the specimens, which is typical of S. megalops; this character was not related to either gender or maturity. Chondrocrania with one lateral process (typical of S. blainville) and two lateral processes (typical of S. megalops) were present. Teeth from the same individuals showed morphological features that overlap between S. blainville and S. megalops. Both unicuspid (typical of S. megalops) and tricuspid denticles (typical of S. blainville) were observed on the same individuals. Twelve specimens (six having one and six having two lateral chondrocranial processes) were analysed genetically by sequencing of the mtDNA marker Cytochrome Oxidase Subunit I (COI). All resulted to be S. blainville showing that intraspecific variability in supposedly diagnostic morphological features is large enough to render these unreliable to tell apart these two species, especially in the field.

Sponges (phylum Porifera) are important components of the benthic marine fauna known for their interactions with vertebrates and a large sort of invertebrates seeking for food, shelter or substrate for attachment. Studies on this subject, however, were restricted only to the macrofauna inhabiting sponges of the class Demospongiae. In the present work, we describe the macrofauna associated with a calcareous sponge in Brazil, Paraleucilla magna. Individuals of this allegedly non-native species were monthly collected during one year in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). Fifty taxa representing 10 animal phyla were found associated with P. magna. The most frequent and abundant taxa were Crustacea, Mollusca, Polychaeta and Bryozoa, while echinoderms, cnidarians, ascidians, nemerteans, platyhelminthes and sponges were less frequent or even rare and less abundant. Juveniles of several taxa and pregnant females of Crustacea were found associated with P. magna, but these associations were not exclusive. The macrofauna associated with P. magna did not present a clear seasonality, although it was possible to observe a change in the community composition alongside the year. The volume of the sponges was significantly related to the diversity index (H′) and number of taxa, but not with evenness (J′) and number of individuals. Our results show that P. magna is used as a substrate for attachment and/or shelter by its associates and that most of these associations are just opportunistic. The data presented here reiterate a previous proposal that sponges are important biodiversity reservoirs and that they should be seriously considered in conservation programmes.

The franciscana dolphin (Pontoporia blainvillei) is a small coastal dolphin endemic to the south-western Atlantic Ocean. Incidental captures in fishing gillnets is possibly the greatest conservation concern for this species, and occurs within most of its geographical distribution. The aim of this paper is to determine the biological parameters of franciscana dolphin by-caught from artisanal coastal fisheries of the southern Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Between 2003 and 2009, carcasses of 54 incidentally captured franciscanas were collected. The age, sexual and physical maturity and body condition of each specimen was determined. The sex-ratio of the by-caught dolphins did not differ from parity and, consistent with other areas, juveniles younger than 4 yr old were captured in higher proportion (69%). In addition, 74% of the entangled animals were sexually immature and 85% physically immature. Sexually immature dolphins were predominant in the spring, a period which coincides with the breeding season. An assessment of the body condition of captured franciscanas suggests that entanglements were not associated with a disease or physiological disorder. The results presented here are important to assess the impact of artisanal fisheries on the population of franciscana dolphins in the southernmost area of its distribution.

This review uses a multidisciplinary approach to investigate legal issues concerning the oceans and human health. It firstly seeks to define the boundaries of oceans and human health research. We use three case studies as examples: biomedical research, marine litter and human well-being. Biomedical research raises complex issues relating to coastal states’ sovereign rights to exploit their marine resources and the patenting processes. Coastal states have differing degrees of control over research at sea. There are differences in EU and US law over the status of genetic discoveries, with the US having stricter criteria to qualify for patent protection. International law sets the standard for bioprospecting in developing countries under the Nagoya Protocol. The cost and complexity of marine biomedical research mean that it cannot be left to commercial exploration and needs some public funding. The second case study highlights the rise in marine plastics pollution using Marine Conservation Society beachwatch data. It details the need to alter product design to avoid marine pollution and records an unsuccessful attempt by academics and an NGO to make contact with the manufacturers of one polluting product. It also introduces the concept that faulty design could amount to a public nuisance. The third case study highlights the potential health benefits from access to the coast and the statutory responsibility which sits with the US and UK authorities in the provision of well-being. It posits that there needs to be greater inter-agency coordination to promote access to the coast for human well-being.

The age and growth of Kwangtung skate, Dipturus kwangtungensis, in the waters off northern Taiwan were estimated from 422 specimens collected between July 2006 and July 2008 at the Tashi fishing market in north-eastern Taiwan. The sexes-combined relationship between total length (TL) and centrum diameter (D) was estimated as follows: TL = 14.11D0.888 (N = 411, r2 = 0.94, P < 0.001). Growth band pairs (comprised of translucent and opaque bands) in vertebrae were determined to form once annually, based on the centrum edge analysis. Up to 14 band pairs were found for both sexes. The von Bertalanffy growth function (VBGF), two-parameter VBGF, the Robertson function, and the Gompertz function were used to fit the observed length-at-age data. The Akaike information criterion corrected indicated that the Gompertz function best fit the observed length at age data. Sex-specific growth functions were not significantly different; the sexes-combined growth parameters were estimated as follows: asymptotic length (L∞) = 96.7 cm TL, growth coefficient (kG) = 0.144 year−1 and constant (t0) = 5.45 year (N = 364, P < 0.01).

The diet and feeding pattern of scyphomedusa Stomolophus meleagris (Rhizostomeae) was studied, by comparing stomach samples from different developmental stages and environmental zooplankton with the aim to determine diet composition, trophic niche breadth, selectivity and feeding overlap of this edible jellyfish species. Samplings were performed during April and December 2010 and in January 2011, in the coastal lagoon Las Guásimas (27°49′–27°54′N 110°40′–110°35′W), central Gulf of California, which consisted of zooplankton tows and jellyfish collections for stomach content. More than 39 prey items were identified in the gut contents (N = 69), from which eight taxa formed over 90% of the total. Fish eggs were considered main prey (58.6%), copepods (10.8%), veliger larvae of gastropod (13.0%) and bivalve (12.7%) were secondary prey while cirriped and decapod larvae were incidental prey (<3%). However, these proportions varied significantly between small, medium and large size classes of medusa as well as number and type of prey increasing as a function of medusa size. Values of Levin's index confirmed S. meleagris is a specialist predator and Pearre's index showed positive selection of fish eggs, gastropods, bivalves and cirripeds while selectivity was negative for copepods and appendicularians. The relative timing of these changes suggests that ontogenetic processes are closely related with shift in the diet, which indicates increasing predation pressure during development of the medusoid stage of this species, thus emphasizing their ecological importance in coastal ecosystems.

The anatomy of Crenella decussata (Mytiloidea) is described. Individuals of this circumboreal species occupy granular crypts composed of sand grains held in place by mucus. The swollen basal region of the tubule is occupied by an individual, which connects to the sediment surface by two posterior tubes accommodating the inhalant and exhalant streams. There is reduction in musculature and, most importantly, anterior foreshortening of the outer ctenidial demibranchs and loss of the labial palps. This creates an anterior space in the mantle for the initial brooding of fertilized ova by females to the prodissoconch stage. Subsequently, these larvae are transferred to the exhalant tube of the crypt wherein they attach by a single fine byssal thread and are further brooded until the crawl-away juvenile stage is attained. Experimental studies of larval behaviour suggest that parental pheromones sustain the female/offspring bond. Newly hatched individuals responded to parental exhalant water by actively attaching themselves using a byssal thread. This response persisted for 28 days, but not after 55 days when, we suggest, the pheromonal response ceases and offspring are developed sufficiently to take up life in their own nests. Offspring retrieved from parental crypts and fed continuously reached an average shell length of 500 μm after 7.5 months. Brooded offspring thus appear to rely on embryonal energy resources until post-metamorphosis, after which suspension feeding becomes essential for further growth and development before the parental crypt is vacated.

Sponge samples were taken by scuba diving from six sites around Sea Lion Island (Sea Lion, Sea Lion Easterly and Brandy Islands), three sites south-east of East Falkland (Motley Island, Green Island and Triste Island) and six sites around Beauchêne Island. Nine new species are described: Iophon roseum sp. nov., Clathria (Microciona) tenebrosa sp. nov., Clathria (Microciona) cheeki sp. nov., Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia) laptikhovskyi sp. nov., Hymedesmia (Hymedesmia) croftsae sp. nov., Myxilla (Ectyomyxilla) beauchênensis sp. nov., Tedania (Tedania) livida sp. nov., Amphilectus fimbriatus sp. nov. and Isodictya cutisanserina sp nov. Additional information is provided on several species recently described from the Falkland Islands and Amphimedon marsei is newly reported. The biogeography of the sponge fauna of the southern Falkland Islands is discussed.

The diet of greater amberjack Seriola dumerili (Carangidae) in the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia, Mediterranean) was described from analysis of stomach contents of 290 specimens fished between June 2004 and May 2006. The index of vacuity (%VI) was relatively low (37.9%) and differed significantly across size classes. Seriola dumerili is an opportunistic predator that consumes mostly pelagic organisms; benthic prey were also examined in small proportion. The diet was quantified using the frequency of occurrence (%O), numerical abundance (%N), weight (%W) and the index of relative importance (IRI and %IRI) for each prey taxa. The most important prey were teleosts (%IRI = 99.61); molluscs and crustaceans were found occasionally (%IRI, 0.38 and 0.01%, respectively). Among teleosts, Clupeidae were also the dominant food items in number (%N = 36.06%) and then in frequency of occurrence (%O = 36.7%). In term of weight, Sparidae were the most abundant prey (%W = 36.5%). There is no significant difference between male and female diets. Seasonal differences in the diet components were observed.

The swimming crab Achelous spinimanus is an important fishery component of several countries in the Western Atlantic; therefore, knowledge of the different phases of its life cycle is essential for good management of this resource. The juvenile development of A. spinimanus was investigated in the laboratory, from megalopae captured in neuston samples at Ubatuba, São Paulo, Brazil (23°26′S 46°09′W), during the summer months of 2005–2007. Rearing was performed in a constant temperature (25 ± 1°C), filtered seawater from the collection location (35 psu) and natural photoperiod. We obtained nine stages of the juvenile phase. All the morphological characters that allow the recognition of the first juvenile stage were drawn and described, as well as the main alterations that occur in the following stages. The sexual differentiation based on the number of pleopods becomes apparent from the third stage on. Some important characters in the identification of the species at the juvenile phase are the number of segments on the exopod of antennule, on the antennal flagellum and on the palp of mandible, beyond the absence of pleopods (even rudimentary) in the first stage.

Living marine resources have strong links with human health and well-being that are complex, still not well understood and that are being modified by global change. This review attempts to illustrate how fishing activities, aquaculture and climate change are challenging these connections and the consequent health risks and benefits posed to citizens. Although global change may provide some positive aspects for human health locally, such as new sources of omega-3, overall it will exacerbate existing seafood security and safety concerns. Unsustainable fishing and aquaculture practices, and climate change, particularly sea warming, ocean acidification and changes in riverine runoff, are threatening not only the protein and fish oil/omega-3 supplies available for consumers, but also raising ecological and health concerns associated with the increase of contaminants, microbes and biotoxins. In this context, we propose a number of management measures that could mitigate the negative effects of global change on seafood, and hence on human health and well-being.

The ovaries of 31 franciscana dolphins (19 immature and 12 mature) by-caught in coastal waters of Argentina were examined to describe the reproductive biology. No ovarian polarity was found, both ovaries were functional and showed similar amounts of corpora. A positive trend was observed between the number of corpora and age (3–8 years old), indicating that ovulation scars are detectable for at least 4 years, and a ovulation rate of 0.39 was found for the sampled population. Age, length and weight at sexual maturity were estimated at 3.92 ± 0.09 years, 133.47 ± 11.11 cm and 32.68 ± 2.72 kg, respectively. The annual pregnancy rate was 0.36 ± 0.02 (95% CI = 0.10–0.65). The proportion of lactating and resting females found were 0.25 and 0.33 respectively. These outcomes constitute the first reproductive and life history information on franciscana dolphins from the southernmost population and are important in relation with adequate conservation management plans for this small cetacean.

The carapace and chelipeds ornamentation of the deep-water spider crab Rochinia umbonata (Stimpson, 1871), from the Western Atlantic undergo very dramatic ontogenetic changes. Since the also deep-water spider crab Rochinia confusa Tavares, 1991 is differentiated from R. umbonata mostly on the basis of these characters, R. confusa is regarded herein as an ontogenetic stage and, therefore, a junior subjective synonym of R. umbonata.

Occupying the upper levels of trophic webs and thus regulating prey at lower levels, sharks play an important role in the trophic structure and energy dynamics of marine ecosystems. In recent years, the removal of these individuals from upper trophic levels as a result of overfishing has negatively affected ecosystems. We analysed the diet of blue sharks (Prionace glauca) caught off the west coast of Baja California Sur, Mexico, during the months of February–June in 2001, 2005 and 2006. We employed both stomach content and stable isotope analyses as each method provides distinct yet important information regarding the role of blue sharks in marine food webs, allowing us to estimate the relative contribution of different prey items to this predator's diet. Of the 368 stomachs analysed, 210 contained food (57%) and 158 (43%) were empty. Based on stomach contents and the index of relative importance (IRI), the pelagic red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes) was the most important prey, followed by the squids Gonatus californiensis (34.1%) and Ancistrocheirus lesueurii (10.4%). The mean (±SD) values for δ15N (16.48 ± 0.94‰) and δ13C (−18.48 ± 0.63‰) suggest that blue sharks prefer feeding in oceanic waters. The trophic level based on stomach content analysis was 4.05, while that based on the stable isotope analysis was 3.8, making blue sharks top consumers in the marine ecosystem of Baja California Sur, Mexico.