The rise of the modern state is a commonplace of sociological and historical writing, yet it remains poorly analyzed. What is meant by state modernization encompasses four processes of growth: in state size, in the scope of its functions, in administrative bureaucratization, and in political representation. The struggle for representation is usually separated from the three administrative processes, which are assumed to constitute a single, overall modernizing process occurring more or less continuously over a long period of time (e.g., Beer 1973: 54–70; Eckstein 1982). In 1863, Adolf Wagner formulated his “law” of the ever growing expansion of the modern state, and this still influences statisticians contemplating ever larger sums in state budgets (e.g., Andic and Veverka 1963–4). Modern state development is described as “onward-and-upward” evolution.

Political scientists and economists have concentrated on the readily available financial statistics of the twentieth century. They explain growth in functional and pluralist terms. Higgs (1987) distinguishes four variants of their theories: modernization theory (states grew to coordinate greater social complexity and differentiation), public goods theory centered on national defense (public goods are provided by the state because they are in no one's private interest to pay for, yet are in the general interest, and their enjoyment by one consumer does not diminish their availability for others), welfare state theory (in complex societies the market undermines private charity and the state steps in), and political redistribution theory (the franchise enables the many to take from the few).