Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-75dct Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-25T12:32:45.275Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

19 - Diatoms as indicators of former sea levels, earthquakes, tsunamis, and hurricanes

from Part IV - Diatoms as indicators in marine and estuarine environments

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 June 2012

By
Benjamin P. Horton  and
Yuki Sawai
Edited by
John P. Smol  and
Eugene F. Stoermer
Benjamin P. Horton
Affiliation:
University of Pennsylvania
Yuki Sawai
Affiliation:
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology
John P. Smol
Affiliation:
Queen's University, Ontario
Eugene F. Stoermer
Affiliation:
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Get access

Summary

Introduction

The significance of relative sea level during the late Quaternary is recognized by disciplines across the Earth sciences. Sea-level histories are important for calibrating and constraining geophysical models of Earth's rheology and glacio-isostatic adjustment (e.g. Peltier, 2004). Sea level is crucial to any study of coastal evolution as it serves as the ultimate baseline for continental denudation (Summerfield, 1991). For human populations, sea levels during the late Quaternary have been an important factor in sustaining coastal communities and may have profoundly influenced the very initiation of human civilization (e.g. Turney and Brown, 2007). Publication of reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) re-emphasized the importance of sea level as a barometer of climate and drew attention to the potentially devastating consequences of future climate-related sea-level change (e.g. Rahmstorf, 2007). However, the IPCC also highlighted the uncertainty with which the driving mechanisms of sea-level change are understood and the disconnection between long-term geological and recent observational trends. Predictions of sea level for the twenty-first century rely on models, and the veracity of model output is based on verification against observations. Interpretation of these observations requires great care in light of the large spatial and temporal variability in relative sea-level change (Milne et al., 2009).

Sea level is far from a constant, planar surface and exhibits spatial and temporal changes at a multitude of scales. To the observer, these changes are manifestations of relative sea level, a term which reflects the uncertainty in separating the often simultaneous contributions from movements of the ocean surface and land (Shennan, 2007).

Type
Chapter
Information
The Diatoms
Applications for the Environmental and Earth Sciences
 , pp. 357 - 372
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alley, R. B., Clark, P. U., Huybrechts, P., & Joughin, I. (2005). Ice-sheet and sea-level changes. Science, 310, 456–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atwater, B. F. (1987). Evidence for great Holocene earthquakes along the outer coast of Washington State. Science, 236, 942–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atwater, B. F. & Hemphill-Haley, E. (1997). Recurrence intervals for great earthquakes of the past 3500 years at northeastern Willapa Bay, Washington. US Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1576.Google Scholar
Atwater, B. F. & Moore, A. L. (1992). A tsunami 1000 years ago in Puget Sound, Washington. Science, 258, 1614–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atwater, B. F., Musumi-Rokkaku, S., Satake, K., et al. Y (eds.) (2005). The Orphan Tsunami of 1700, Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Bakker, C., Herman, P. M. J., & Vink, M. (1990). Changes in seasonal succession of phytoplankton induced by the storm-surge barrier in the Oosterschelde (S. W. Netherlands). Journal of Plankton Research, 12, 947–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bondevik, S., Mangerud, J., Dawson, S., Dawson, A. G., & Lohne, O. (2005). A record of three tsunami events in the Shetland Islands during the last 8,000 cal years. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 1757–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bondevik, S., Svendsen, J. I., & Mangerud, J. (1997). Tsunami sedimentary facies deposited by the. Storegga tsunami in shallow marine basins and coastal lakes, western Norway. Sedimentology, 44, 1115–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourgeois, J. (2006). A movement in four parts?Nature, 440, 430–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cisternas, M., Atwater, B. F., Torrejon, F., et al. (2005). Predecessors of the giant 1960 Chile earthquake. Nature, 437, 404–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clague, J. J. & Bobrowsky, P. T. (1994). Tsunami deposits beneath tidal marshes on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 106, 1293–303.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clague, J. J., Bobrowsky, P. T., & Hutchinson, I. (2000). A review of geological records of large tsunamis at Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and implications for hazard. Quaternary Science Reviews, 19, 849–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, J. A., Farrell, W. E., and Peltier, W. R. (1978). Global changes in postglacial sea level a numerical calculation. Quaternary Research, 9, 265–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corner, G. D., Yevzerov, V. Y., Kolka, V. V., & Moller, J. J. (1999). Isolation basin stratigraphy and Holocene relative sea-level change at the Norwegian–Russian border north of Nikel, northwest Russia. Boreas, 28, 146–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, S. (2007). Diatom biostratigraphy of tsunami deposits: examples from the 1998 Papua New Guinea tsunami. Sedimentary Geology, 200, 328–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, S., Dawson, A. G., & Edwards, K. J. (1998). Rapid Holocene relative sea-level changes in Gruinart, Isle of Islay, Scottish Inner Hebrides. The Holocene, 8, 183–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, S. & Smith, D. E. (2000). The sedimentology of mid-Holocene tsunami facies in northern Scotland. Marine Geology, 170, 69–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawson, S., Smith, D. E., Ruffman, A., & Shi, S. (1996). The diatom biostratigraphy of tsunami sediments: examples from recent and middle Holocene events. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 21, 87–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dominey-Howes, D. T. M., Papadopoulos, G. A., & Dawson, A. G. (2000). Geological and historical investigation of the 1650 Mt. Columbo (Thera Island) eruption and tsunami, Agean Sea, Greece. Natural Hazards, 21, 83–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donnelly, J. P. & Woodruff, J. D. (2007). Intense hurricane activity over the past 5,000 years controlled by El Niño and the West African Monsoon. Nature, 447, 465–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donnelly, J. P., Cleary, P., Newby, P., & Ettinger, R. (2004). Coupling instrumental and geological records of sea-level change: evidence from southern New England of an increase in the rate of sea-level rise in the late 19th century. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, 1–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, R. J. (2007). Sedimentary indicators of relative sea-level changes – low energy. In Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, ed. Elias, S. A., Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 2994–3005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engelhart, S. E., Horton, B. P., Douglas, B. C., Peltier, W. R., & Tornqvist, T. E. (2009). Spatial variability of late Holocene and 20th century sea level rise along the US Atlantic coast. Geology, 37, 1115–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gehrels, W. R. (2007). Sea level studies: microfossil reconstructions. In Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, ed. Elias, S. A., Elsevier, pp. 3015–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gehrels, W. R., Hayward, B. W., Newnham, R. M., & Southall, K. E. (2008). A 20th century sea-level acceleration in New Zealand. Geophysical Research Letters, 35, L02717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gehrels, W. R., Kirby, J. R., Prokoph, A., et al. (2005). Onset of recent rapid sea-level rise in the western Atlantic Ocean. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 2083–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gehrels, W. R., Roe, H. M., & Charman, D. J. (2001). Foraminifera, testate amoebae and diatoms as sea-level indicators in UK saltmarshes; a quantiative multiproxy approach. Journal of Quaternary Science, 16, 201–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goff, J. R., Chagué-Goff, C., & Nichol, S. (2001). Palaeotsunami deposits: a New Zealand perspective. Sedimentary Geology, 143, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haften, U. & Tallantire, P. A. (1978). Palaeoecology and post-Weichselain shore-level changes on the coast of Møre, western Norway. Boreas, 7, 109–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, S. & Shennan, I. (2005). Late Holocene relative sea-level changes and the earthquake deformation cycle around upper Cook Inlet, Alaska. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 1479–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, B. W., Cochran, U., Southall, K., et al. (2004). Micropalaeotological evidence for the Holocene earthquake history of the eastern Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, and a new index for determining the land elevation record. Quaternary Science Reviews, 23, 1651–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemphill-Haley, E. (1995a). Diatom evidence for earthquake induced subsidence and tsunami 300 yr ago in southern Washington. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 107, 367–78.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemphill-Haley, E. (1995b). Intertidal diatoms from Willapa Bay, Washington: applications to studies of small-scale sea-level changes. Northwest Science, 69, 29–45.Google Scholar
Hemphill-Haley, E. (1996). Diatoms as an aid in identifying late-Holocene tsunami deposits. The Holocene, 6, 439–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hendey, N. I. (1964). An introductory account of the smaller algae of British coastal waters, Bacillariophyceae (diatoms). Fishery Investigation Series, London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Heyworth, A., Kidson, C., & Wilks, P. (1985). Late-glacial and Holocene sediments at Clarach Bay, near Aberystwyth. Journal of Ecology, 73, 459–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horton, B. P., Corbett, R., Culver, S. J., Edwards, R. J., & Hillier, C. (2006). Modern saltmarsh diatom distributions of the Outer Banks, North Carolina, and the development of a transfer function for high resolution reconstructions of sea level. Estuarine, Coastal, and Shelf Science, 69, 381–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horton, B. P. & Edwards, R. J. (2006). Quantifying Holocene sea level change using intertidal foraminifera: lessons from the British Isles. Cushman Foundation for Foraminiferal Research, Special Publication, 40.Google Scholar
Horton, B. P., Peltier, W. R., Culver, S. J., et al. (2009). Holocene sea-level changes along the North Carolina Coastline and their implications for glacial isostatic adjustment models. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 172–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horton, B. P., Rossi, V., & Hawkes, A. D. (2008). The sedimentary record of the 2005 hurricane season along the Gulf Coast, Quaternary International, 195, 15–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horton, B. P., Zong, Y., Hillier, C., & Engelhart, S. (2007). Diatoms from Indonesian mangroves and their suitability as sea-level indicators for tropical environments. Marine Micropaleontology, 63, 155–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hustedt, F. (1953). Diatomeen aus dem Naturschutzpark Seeon. Archiv für Hydrobiologie. 47, 625–35.Google Scholar
Hustedt, F. (1957). Die Diatomeenflora des Fluss-systems der Weser im Gebiet der Hansestadt Bremen. Abhandlungen vom Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein zu Bremen, 34, 181–440.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, I., Clague, J. J., & Mathewes, R. W. (1997). Reconstructing the Tsunami record on an emerging coast: a case study of Kanim Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Coastal Research, 13, 545–53.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, I., Guilbault, J.-P., Clague, J. J., & Bobrowsky, P. T. (2000). Tsunamis and tectonic deformation at the northern Cascadia margin: a 3000-year record from Deserted Lake, Vancouver Island. The Holocene, 10, 429–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iliev, A. Y., Kaistrenko, V. M., Gretskaya, E. V., et al. (2005). Holocene tsunami traces on Kunashir Island, Kuril subduction zone. Tsunamis, Case Studies and Recent Developments, 23, 171–92.Google Scholar
,IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment. Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., et al., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jankaew, K., Atwater, B. F., Sawai, Y., et al. (2008). Medieval forewarning of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami in Thailand. Nature, 455, 1228–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juggins, S. (1992). Diatoms in the Thames estuary, England: ecology, palaeoecology, and salinity transfer function. Bibliotheca Diatomologica, 25, 216.Google Scholar
Kemp, A. C., Horton, B. P., Corbett, R., et al. (2009a). The relative utility of foraminifera and diatoms for reconstructing late Holocene sea-level change in North Carolina, USA. Quaternary Research, 71, 9–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kemp, A. C., Horton, B. P., Culver, S. J., et al. (2009b). The timing and magnitude of recent accelerated sea-level rise (North Carolina, USA). Geology, 37, 1035–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjemperud, A. (1981). Diatom changes in sediments from basins possessing marine/lacustrine transitions in Frosta, Nord-Trøndelag, Norway. Boreas, 10, 27–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosugi, M. (1985). Discrimination of living or dead cells of diatom based on the stained images – its method and significance. Quaternary Research, 24, 139–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosugi, M. (1986). Transportation and sedimentation patterns on dead diatoms in a tidal area – a case study in the lower reach of the Obitsu River. Geological Review of Japan, 59, 37–50.Google Scholar
Kosugi, M. (1987). Limiting factors on the distribution of benthic diatoms in coastal regions – salinity and substratum. Diatom, 3, 21–31.Google Scholar
Kosugi, M. (1988). Classification of living diatom assemblages as the indicator of environments, and its application to reconstruction of paleoenvironments. Quaternary Research, 27, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosugi, M. (1989). Processes of formation on fossil diatom assemblages and the paleoecological analysis. Benthos Research, 35–36, 17–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambeck, K., Esat, T. M., & Potter, E-K. (2002). Links between climate and sea levels for the past three million years. Nature, 419, 199–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, K. & Fearn, M. L. (1993). Lake-sediment record of late Holocene hurricane activities from coastal Alabama. Geology, 21, 793–6.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, J. M. (2000). Combined foraminiferal and thecamoebian environmental reconstruction from an isolation basin in NW Scotland: implications for sea-level studies. Journal of Foraminiferal Research, 30, 294–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, J. M. & Evans, J. R. (2002). Contemporary and fossil foraminifera from isolation basins in northwest Scotland. Journal of Quaternary Science, 17, 431–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, A. J., Roberts, D. H., & Dawson, S. (2006). Early Holocene history of the west Greenland ice sheet and the GH-8.2 event. Quaternary Science Reviews, 25, 904–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, A. J., Roberts, D. H., Simpson, M. J. R., et al. (2008). Late Weichselian relative sea-level changes and ice sheet history in southeast Greenland. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 282, 8–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, A. J., Roberts, D. H., & Wright, M. R. (1999). Isolation basin stratigraphy and Holocene relative sea-level change on Arveprinsen Ejland, Disko Bugt, West Greenland. Journal of Quaternary Science, 14, 323–45.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, M. E., Weiss, R., Bourgeois, J., et al. (2008). Combining constraints from tsunami modeling and sedimentology to untangle the 1969 Ozernoi and 1971 Kamchatskii tsunamis. Geophysical Research Letters, 35, L01610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Metcalfe, S. E., Ellis, S., Horton, B. P., et al. (2000). The Holocene evolution of the Humber estuary: reconstructing change in a dynamic environment. Geological Society Special Publication, 166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milne, G. A., Gehrels, W. R., Hughes, C. W., & Tamisiea, M. E. (2009). Identifying the causes of sea-level change. Nature Geoscience, 2, 471–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milne, G. A., Long, A. J., & Bassett, S. E. (2005). Modelling Holocene relative sea-level observations from the Caribbean and South America. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 1183–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minoura, K. & Nakaya, S. (1991). Trances of tsunami preserved in inter-tidal lacustrine and marsh deposits: some examples from northeast Japan. Journal of Geology, 99, 265–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minoura, K., Nakaya, S., & Uchida, M. (1994). Tsunami deposits in a lacustrine sequence of the Sanriku coast, northeast Japan. Sedimentary Geology, 89, 25–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monecke, K., Finger, W., Klarer, D., et al. (2008). A 1,000-year sediment record of tsunami recurrence in northern Sumatra. Nature, 455, 1232–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nanayama, F., Satake, K., Furukawa, R., et al. (2003). Unusually large earthquakes inferred from tsunami deposits along the Kuril trench. Nature, 424, 660–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, A. R. (2007). Tectonic locations. In Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, ed. Elias, S. A., Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 3072–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, A. R., Jennings, A. E., & Kashima, K. (1996b). An earthquake history derived from stratigraphic and microfossil evidence of relative sea-level change at Coos Bay, southern coastal Oregon. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 108, 141–54.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, A. R. & Kashima, K. (1993). Diatom zonation in southern Oregon tidal Marshes relative to vascular plants, foraminifera and sea level. Journal of Coastal Research, 9, 673–97.Google Scholar
Nelson, A. R., Ota, Y., Umitsu, M., Kashima, K., & Matsushima, Y. (1998). Seismic or hydrodynamic control of rapid late-Holocene sea-level rises in southern coastal Oregon, USA?, The Holocene, 8, 287–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, A. R., Sawai, Y., Jennings, A., et al. (2008). Great-earthquake paleogeodesy and tsunamis of the past 2000 years at Alsea Bay, central Oregon coast, USA. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27, 747–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, A. R., Shennan, I., & Long, A. J. (1996a). Identifying coseismic subsidence in tidal-wetland stratigraphic sequences at the Cascadia subduction zone of western North America. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101, 6115–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, A. J. M. & Abbott, W. H. (1986). Diatoms as indicators of sea-level change. In Sea-Level Research: a Manual for the Collection and Evaluation of Data, ed. Plassche, O., Norwich: Geobooks, pp. 457--88.Google Scholar
Parsons, M. L. (1998). Salt marsh sedimentary record of the landfall of Hurricane Andrew on the Louisiana coast: diatoms and other paleoindicators. Journal of Coastal Research, 14, 939–50.Google Scholar
Patterson, R. T., Dalby, A. P., Roe, H. M., et al. (2005). Relative utility of foraminifera, diatoms and macrophytes as high resolution indicators of paleo-sea level. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 2002–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, R. T., Hutchinson, I., Guilbault, J. P., & Clague, J. J. (2000). A comparison of the vertical zonation of diatom, Foraminifera, and Macrophyte assemblages in a coastal marsh: implications for greater paleo-sea level resolution. Micropaleontology, 46, 229–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peltier, W. R. (2004). Global glacial isostasy and the surface of the ice-age earth: the ice-5G (VM2) model and grace. Annual Review of Earth Planetary Science, 32, 111–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peltier, W. R., Shennan, I., Drummond, R., & Horton, B. P. (2002). On the post-glacial isostatic adjustment of the British Isles and the shallow visco-elastic structure of the Earth. Geophysical Journal International, 148, 443–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plafker, G. (1969). Tectonics of the March 27, 1969 Alaska earthquake. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 543-I, 74 pp.Google Scholar
Plater, A. J., Horton, B. P., Haworth, E. Y., et al. (2000). Holocene tidal levels and sedimentation rates using a diatom-based palaeoenvironmental reconstruction: the Tees estuary, north-eastern England. Holocene, 10, 441–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahmstorf, S. (2007). A semi-empirical approach to projecting future sea-level rise. Science, 315, 368–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Razzhigaeva, N. G., Ganzei, L. A., Grebennikova, T. A., et al. (2007). Tsunami deposits of the Shikotan earthquake of 1994. Oceanography, 47, 579–87.Google Scholar
Roe, H. M., Doherty, C. T., Patterson, R. T., & Swindles, G. T. (2008). Contemporary distributions of saltmarsh diatoms in the Seymour–Belize Inlet Complex, British Columbia, Canada: implications for studies of sea-level change. Marine Micropaleontology, 70, 134–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryves, D. B., Battarbee, R. W., & Fritz, S. C. (2009). The dilemma of disappearing diatoms: incorporating diatom dissolution data into palaeoenvironmental modelling and reconstruction. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 120–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawai, Y. (2001a). Distribution of living and dead diatoms in tidal wetlands of northern Japan: relations to taphonomy. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 173, 125–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawai, Y. (2001b). Episodic emergence in the past 3000 years at the Akkeshi Estuary, Hokkaido, northern Japan. Quaternary Research, 56, 231–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawai, Y. (2002). Evidence for 17th century tsunamis generated on the Kuril-Kamchatka subduction zone, Lake Tokotan, Hokkaido, Japan. Journal of Asian Earth Science, 20, 903–911.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawai, Y., Fujii, Y., Fujiwara, O., et al. (2008). Marine incursions of the past 1500 years and evidence of tsunamis at Suijin-numa, a coastal lake facing the Japan Trench. The Holocene, 18, 517–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawai, Y., Horton, B. P., & Nagumo, T. (2004a). Diatom-based elevation transfer function along the Pacific coast of eastern Hokkadio, northern Japan – an aid in paleo-seismic study along the coasts near Kurile subduction zone. Quaternary Science Reviews, 23, 2467–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawai, Y., Jankaew, K., Martin, M. E., et al. (2009). Diatom assemblages in tsunami deposits associated with the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami at Phra Thong Island, Thailand. Marine Micropaleontology, 73, 70–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawai, Y., Satake, K., Kamataki, T., et al. (2004b). Transient uplift after a 17th-century earthquake along the Kuril subduction zone. Science, 306, 1918–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, J., Gareau, P., & Courtney, R. C. (2002). Palaeogeography of Atlantic Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews, 21, 1861–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, I. (1986). Flandrian sea-level changes in the Fenland, II: tendencies of sea-level movement, altitudinal changes and local and regional factors. Journal of Quaternary Science, 1, 155–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, I. (2007). Sea level studies. In Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science, ed. Elias, S. A., Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 2967–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, I. & Hamilton, S. L. (2006). Co-seismic and pre-seismic subsidence associated with great earthquakes in Alaska. Quaternary Science Reviews, 25, 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, I. & Horton, B. P. (2002). Relative sea-level changes and crustal movements of the UK. Journal of Quaternary Science, 16, 511–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, I., Long, A. J., Rutherford, M. M., et al. (1996). Tidal marsh stratigraphy, sea-level change and large earthquakes: a 5000 year record in Washington, USA. Quaternary Science Reviews, 15, 1023–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, I., Lambeck, K., Horton, B. P., et al. (2000). Late Devensian and Holocene records of relative sea-level changes in northwest Scotland and their implications for glacio-hydro-isostatic modelling. Quaternary Science Reviews, 19, 1103–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shennan, I., Long, A. J., Rutherford, M. M., et al. (1998). Tidal marsh stratigraphy, sea-level change and large earthquakes, II, submergence events during the last 3500 years at Netarts Bay, Oregon, U.S.A. Quaternary Science Reviews, 17, 365–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherrod, B. L. (1999). Gradient analysis of diatom assemblages in a Puget Sound salt marsh – can such assemblages be used for quantitative paleoecological reconstructions?Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 149, 213–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherrod, B. L. (2001). Evidence for earthquake-induced subsidence about 1100 yr ago in coastal marshes of southern Puget Sound, Washington. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 113, 1299–311.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherrod, B. L., Bucknam, R. C., & Leopold, E. B. (2000). Holocene relative sea level changes along the Seattle Fault at Restoration Point, Washington. Quaternary Research, 54, 384–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonsen, R. (1969). Diatoms as indicators in estuarine environments. Velöffentliche Institut Meeresforschung Bremerhaven, 11, 287–91.Google Scholar
Sullivan, M. J. (1975). Diatom communities from a Delaware salt marsh. Journal of Phycology, 11, 384–90.Google Scholar
Summerfield, M. A. (1991). Global Geomorphology. An Introduction to the Study of Landfornis, Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Szkornik, K., Gehrels, W. R., & Kirby, J. R. (2006). Using salt-marsh diatoms to reconstruct sea-level changes in Ho Bugt western Denmark. Marine Geology, 235, 137–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Telford, R. J. & Birks, H. J. B. (2009). Evaluation of transfer functions in spatially structured environments. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 1309–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braak, C. J. F. (1987). The analysis of vegetation–environment relationships by canonical correspondence analysis. Vegetatio, 69, 69–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braak, C. J. F. & Verdonschot, P. F. M. (1995). Canonical correspondence analysis and related multivariate methods in aquatic ecology. Aquatic Sciences, 57, 153–87.Google Scholar
Tooley, M. J. (1982). Sea-level changes in northern England. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 93, 43–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tooley, M. J. & Jelgersma, S. (Ed.) (1992). Impacts of Sea-Level Rise on European Coastal Lowlands. Blackwell: Oxford.Google Scholar
Troels-Smith, J. (1955). Characterisation of unconsolidated sediments. Danmarks Geologiske Unders, 4 (3), 1–73.Google Scholar
Turney, C. S. M. & Brown, H. (2007). Catastrophic early Holocene sea level rise, human migration and the Neolithic transition in Europe. Quaternary Science Reviews, 26, 2036–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plassche, O., (ed.) (1986). Sea-Level Research: a Manual for the Collection and Evaluation of Data. Norwich: Geobooks.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plassche, O., Wright, A. J., Borg, K., & Jong, A.F.M. (2004). Salt-marsh erosion associated with hurricane landfall in southern New England in the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. Geology, 34, 829–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werff, H. & Huls, H. (1958–1974). Diatomeeenflora van Nederland, 8 parts, published privately, De Hoef, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Voorrips, A. & Jansma, M. A. (1974). Pollen and diatom analysis of a shore section of the former Lake Wervershoof. Geologie en Mijnbouw, 53, 429–35.Google Scholar
Vos, P. C. & Wolf, H. (1993). Diatoms as a tool for reconstruction sedimentary environments in coastal wetlands: methodological aspects. Hydrobiologa, 269–270, 285–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, H. F. L., Hutchinson, I., & Nelson, A. R. (2005). Multiple source for late-Holocene tsunamis at Discovery Bay, Washington State, USA. The Holocene, 15, 60–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witter, R. C., Kelsey, H. M., & Hemphill-Haley, E. (2001). Pacific storms, El Niño and tsunamis: competing mechanisms for sand deposition in a coastal marsh, Euchre Creek, Oregon. Journal of Coastal Research, 17, 563–83.Google Scholar
Woodroffe, S. A. (2009). Recognising subtidal foraminiferal assemblages: implications for quantitative sea-level reconstructions using a foraminifera-based transfer function. Journal of Quaternary Science, 24, 215–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodroffe, S. A. & Long, A. J. (2009). Salt marshes as archives of recent relative sea level change in west Greenland. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 1750–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zong, Y. (1998). Diatom records and sedimentary responses to sea-level change during the last 8000 years in Roudsea Wood, northwest England. The Holocene, 8, 219–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zong, Y. & Horton, B. P. (1998). Diatom zones across intertidal flats and coastal saltmarshes in Britain. Diatom Research, 13, 375–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zong, Y. & Horton, B. P. (1999). Diatom-based tidal-level transfer functions as an aid in reconstructing Quaternary history of sea-level movements in Britain. Journal of Quaternary Science, 14, 153–67.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zong, Y., Shennan, I., Combellick, R. A., Hamilton, S. L., & Rutherford, M. M. (2003). Microfossil evidence for land movements associated with the AD 1964 Alaska earthquake. The Holocene, 13, 7–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zong, Y. & Tooley, M. J. (1996). Holocene sea-level changes and crustal movements in Morecambe Bay, northwest England. Journal of Quaternary Science, 11, 43–58.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×