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Micronutrients and socio-demographic factors were major predictors of anaemia among the Ethiopian population
- Adamu Belay, Edward J. M. Joy, R. Murray Lark, E. Louise Ander, Scott D. Young, Elizabeth H. Bailey, Martin R. Broadley, Dawd Gashu
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- Journal:
- British Journal of Nutrition / Volume 130 / Issue 12 / 28 December 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 10 July 2023, pp. 2123-2135
- Print publication:
- 28 December 2023
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Anaemia is characterised by low hemoglobin (Hb) concentration. Despite being a public health concern in Ethiopia, the role of micronutrients and non-nutritional factors as a determinant of Hb concentrations has been inadequately explored. This study focused on the assessment of serum micronutrient and Hb concentrations and a range of non-nutritional factors, to evaluate their associations with the risk of anaemia among the Ethiopian population (n 2046). It also explored the mediation effect of Zn on the relation between se and Hb. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses were performed to identify the relationship between serum micronutrients concentration, inflammation biomarkers, nutritional status, presence of parasitic infection and socio-demographic factors with Hb concentration (n 2046). Sobel–Goodman test was applied to investigate the mediation of Zn on relations between serum se and Hb. In total, 18·6 % of participants were anaemic, 5·8 % had iron deficiency (ID), 2·6 % had ID anaemia and 0·6 % had tissue ID. Younger age, household head illiteracy and low serum concentrations of ferritin, Co, Cu and folate were associated with anaemia. Serum se had an indirect effect that was mediated by Zn, with a significant effect of se on Zn (P < 0·001) and Zn on Hb (P < 0·001). The findings of this study suggest the need for designing a multi-sectorial intervention to address anaemia based on demographic group.
Mineral micronutrient status and spatial distribution among the Ethiopian population
- Adamu Belay, Dawd Gashu, Edward J. M. Joy, Murray R. Lark, Christopher Chagumaira, Dilnesaw Zerfu, Louise E. Ander, Scott D. Young, Elizabeth H. Bailey, Martin R. Broadley
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- Journal:
- British Journal of Nutrition / Volume 128 / Issue 11 / 14 December 2022
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 03 February 2022, pp. 2170-2180
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- 14 December 2022
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Multiple micronutrient deficiencies are widespread in Ethiopia. However, the distribution of Se and Zn deficiency risks has previously shown evidence of spatially dependent variability, warranting the need to explore this aspect for wider micronutrients. Here, blood serum concentrations for Ca, Mg, Co, Cu and Mo were measured (n 3102) on samples from the Ethiopian National Micronutrient Survey. Geostatistical modelling was used to test spatial variation of these micronutrients for women of reproductive age, who represent the largest demographic group surveyed (n 1290). Median serum concentrations were 8·6 mg dl−1 for Ca, 1·9 mg dl−1 for Mg, 0·4 µg l−1 for Co, 98·8 µg dl−1 for Cu and 0·2 µg dl−1 for Mo. The prevalence of Ca, Mg and Co deficiency was 41·6 %, 29·2 % and 15·9 %, respectively; Cu and Mo deficiency prevalence was 7·6 % and 0·3 %, respectively. A higher prevalence of Ca, Cu and Mo deficiency was observed in north western, Co deficiency in central and Mg deficiency in north eastern parts of Ethiopia. Serum Ca, Mg and Mo concentrations show spatial dependencies up to 140–500 km; however, there was no evidence of spatial correlations for serum Co and Cu concentrations. These new data indicate the scale of multiple mineral micronutrient deficiency in Ethiopia and the geographical differences in the prevalence of deficiencies suggesting the need to consider targeted responses during the planning of nutrition intervention programmes.
Stepwise tailoring and test–retest of reproducibility of an ethnic-specific FFQ to estimate nutrient intakes for South Asians in New Zealand
- Sherly M Parackal, Paula Skidmore, Elizabeth A Fleming, Karl Bailey, Kathryn E Bradbury, Clare R Wall
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- Journal:
- Public Health Nutrition / Volume 24 / Issue 9 / June 2021
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 22 March 2021, pp. 2447-2454
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Objective:
To develop and test–retest the reproducibility of an ethnic-specific FFQ to estimate nutrient intakes for South Asians (SA) in New Zealand (NZ).
Design:Using culturally appropriate methods, the NZFFQ, a validated dietary assessment tool for NZ adults, was modified to include SA food items by analysing foods consumed by SA participants of the Adult Nutrition Survey, in-person audit of ethnic food stores and a web scan of ethnic food store websites in NZ. This was further refined via three focus group discussions, and the resulting New Zealand South Asian Food Frequency Questionnaire (NZSAFFQ) was tested for reproducibility.
Setting:Auckland and Dunedin, NZ.
Participants:Twenty-nine and 110 males and females aged 25–59 years of SA ethnicity participated in the focus group discussions and the test–retest, respectively.
Results:The development phase resulted in a SA-specific FFQ comprising of 11 food groups and 180 food items. Test–retest of the NZSAFFQ showed good reproducibility between the two FFQ administrations, 6 months apart. Most reproducibility coefficients were within or higher than the acceptable range of 0·5–0·7. The lowest intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were observed for β-carotene (0·47), vitamin B12 (0·50), fructose (0·55), vitamin C (0·57) and selenium (0·58), and the highest ICC were observed for alcohol (0·81), iodine (0·79) and folate (0·77). The ICC for fat ranged from 0·70 for saturated fats to 0·77 for polyunsaturated fats. The ICC for protein and energy were 0·68 and 0·72, respectively.
Conclusions:The developed FFQ showed good reproducibility to estimate nutrient intakes and warrants the need for validation of the instrument.
Folate status and concentrations of serum folate forms in the US population: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2
- Christine M. Pfeiffer, Maya R. Sternberg, Zia Fazili, David A. Lacher, Mindy Zhang, Clifford L. Johnson, Heather C. Hamner, Regan L. Bailey, Jeanne I. Rader, Sedigheh Yamini, R. J. Berry, Elizabeth A. Yetley
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- British Journal of Nutrition / Volume 113 / Issue 12 / 28 June 2015
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 28 April 2015, pp. 1965-1977
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- 28 June 2015
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Serum and erythrocyte (RBC) total folate are indicators of folate status. No nationally representative population data exist for folate forms. We measured the serum folate forms (5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-methylTHF), unmetabolised folic acid (UMFA), non-methyl folate (sum of tetrahydrofolate (THF), 5-formyltetrahydrofolate (5-formylTHF), 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate (5,10-methenylTHF)) and MeFox (5-methylTHF oxidation product)) by HPLC–MS/MS and RBC total folate by microbiologic assay in US population ≥ 1 year (n approximately 7500) participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011–2. Data analysis for serum total folate was conducted including and excluding MeFox. Concentrations (geometric mean; detection rate) of 5-methylTHF (37·5 nmol/l; 100 %), UMFA (1·21 nmol/l; 99·9 %), MeFox (1·53 nmol/l; 98·8 %), and THF (1·01 nmol/l; 85·2 %) were mostly detectable. 5-FormylTHF (3·6 %) and 5,10-methenylTHF (4·4 %) were rarely detected. The biggest contributor to serum total folate was 5-methylTHF (86·7 %); UMFA (4·0 %), non-methyl folate (4·7 %) and MeFox (4·5 %) contributed smaller amounts. Age was positively related to MeFox, but showed a U-shaped pattern for other folates. We generally noted sex and race/ethnic biomarker differences and weak (Spearman's r< 0·4) but significant (P< 0·05) correlations with physiological and lifestyle variables. Fasting, kidney function, smoking and alcohol intake showed negative associations. BMI and body surface area showed positive associations with MeFox but negative associations with other folates. All biomarkers showed significantly higher concentrations with recent folic acid-containing dietary supplement use. These first-time population data for serum folate forms generally show similar associations with demographic, physiological and lifestyle variables as serum total folate. Patterns observed for MeFox may suggest altered folate metabolism dependent on biological characteristics.
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
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- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Insights into the Microbial Degradation of Bone in Marine Environments from Rrna Gene Sequencing of Biofilms on Lab-Simulated Carcass-Falls
- Laura A. Vietti, Jake V. Bailey, Elizabeth M. Ricci
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- The Paleontological Society Special Publications / Volume 13 / 2014
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 26 July 2017, pp. 120-121
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- 2014
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Contributors
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- By Gregory A. Aarons, Nick Axford, Frances Wallace Bailey, Judith Bennett, Karen A. Blase, James Boyle, Tracey Bywater, Linda L. Caldwell, Jeanne Century, Anne Michelle Daniels, Thomas J. Dishion, Celene E. Domitrovich, Morgaen Donaldson, Glen Dunlap, Carl J. Dunst, Melissa Van Dyke, Dean L. Fixsen, Tamsin Ford, Lise Fox, Cassie Freeman, Robyn M. Gillies, Amy E. Green, Mark T. Greenberg, Violet H. Harada, Tim Hobbs, Cindy Huang, Robert J. Illback, Barbara Kelly, Kathryn Margolis, Elizabeth Miller, Dana T. Mitra, Jeremy J. Monsen, Julia E. Moore, Louise Morpeth, Barbara Neufeld, Colleen K. Reutebuch, Mollie Rudnick, Robert Savage, Robert E. Slavin, Elizabeth A. Stormshack, Phillip Strain, Keith J. Topping, Carol M. Trivette, Sharon Vaughn, Janet A. Welsh, Lisa Marks Woolfson, Joyce Yukawa
- Edited by Barbara Kelly, University of Strathclyde, Daniel F. Perkins, Pennsylvania State University
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- Handbook of Implementation Science for Psychology in Education
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- 05 November 2012
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- 20 August 2012, pp xi-xiv
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Part II - Compliance and Trading
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 107-108
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Bibliography
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 343-352
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2 - A Political History of Federal Acid Rain Legislation
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 13-30
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Summary
EARLY HISTORY OF FEDERAL REGULATION OF SO2 EMISSIONS
The 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments
The 1990 Acid Rain Program and the factors that influenced its structure cannot be understood in isolation from the earlier history of the federal government's efforts to limit SO2 emissions produced in conjunction with the generation of electricity. The 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments, the first significant U.S. federal air pollution legislation, led to the establishment of national maximum standards for ambient concentrations of SO2, as for those of carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulates, ozone, and lead. The states were largely responsible for meeting these standards in each local area. Each state was required to develop and have approved by EPA a state implementation plan (SIP) specifying actions to be taken to bring the state into compliance with the standards before the deadlines specified in the statute. The motivation for controlling SO2 emissions at this time was not concern about damage caused by acid rain. Rather, it rested on concerns about the effects of ambient SO2 concentrations on human health (for which “primary standards” were specified in the statute) and on other aspects of human welfare such as visibility (for which “secondary standards” were specified in the statute).
The 1970 Amendments also imposed New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) applicable only to SO2 emissions from new power plants. According to the NSPS, the emissions rate (ER) for new coal plants could not exceed 1.21b of sulfur dioxide per million Btu of fuel burned (0.81b/mmBtu for oil).
Index
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 353-362
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7 - Emissions Trading: Development of the Allowance Market
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 167-196
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Summary
The argument for the cost-minimizing properties of emissions trading rests, of course, on the assumption that an external market for permits exists and that it is reasonably efficient. By “efficient” we mean that the prices for permits are transparent to buyers and sellers, transaction costs are low, arbitrage opportunities are quickly exploited, and buyers and sellers take full advantage of the opportunities to reduce compliance costs by engaging in trading activity. The limited experience with emissions trading prior to 1990 was not particularly encouraging in this regard (Hahn, 1989; Hahn and Hester, 1989), and there was considerable doubt whether the tradable permit feature of Title IV would meet with any greater success than did earlier programs involving emissions trading.
Unlike previous tradable permit programs, Title IV embraces emissions trading among utilities with remarkably few restrictions. First, allowances can be traded nationally. Second, no review or prior approval of trades is necessary. Third, the purchase and holding of allowances is not restricted to utilities for which these permits would become a necessary input for the coal- or oil-fired generation of electricity. All sources receiving allowance allocations as well as third parties, such as brokerage firms and individuals, are free to buy allowances from or sell them to any other party. Fourth, neither the frequency nor the mechanisms for trading allowances is limited. Finally, allowances that are good for use in one year may be saved and used in future years.
1 - A Market-Based Experiment
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 3-12
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Summary
A STAR IS BORN (?)
More than thirty years ago, Dales (1968) demonstrated that, in theory, an emissions-trading system, in which rights to emit pollution are available in fixed and limited aggregate amount and are freely tradable, would induce rational firms to reduce pollution at the least possible cost. This basic theoretical argument has been refined and elaborated many times since. Over this same period, the alternative command-and-control approach to environmental policy, in which the design or performance of individual pollution sources is specified, has been applied to a wide variety of problems and has generally performed poorly, with excessive costs and, often, failure to achieve environmental objectives. Nonetheless, until quite recently, emissions trading and related approaches (such as emission taxes) attracted little but hostility from noneconomists and were rarely employed in practice.
Then, with relatively little fanfare, Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (1990 CAAA, Public Law 101–549), the U.S. Acid Rain Program, passed by the U.S. Congress and signed by President George Bush in 1990, established the first large-scale, long-term U.S. environmental program to rely on tradable emission permits (called “allowances” in the legislation) to control emissions. Its target was electric utility emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), the major precursor of acid rain.
Since 1990, policymakers' interest in emissions trading has grown rapidly. This growth accelerated in 1995, when Title IV came into effect. Most observers quickly judged the program to be a great success, largely because the price of emission rights (allowances) was well below expectations.
Preface
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp xvii-xx
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Summary
This book brings together the results of more than five years of research conducted by the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, with which all of the authors have been affiliated. The Center seeks to provide rigorous, empirically grounded, and accessible economic analysis to inform the public policy debate. It has been the focus of applied economics research on energy and environmental issues at MIT for more than twenty years. The Center historically has concentrated on topics – like emissions trading – that are both interesting to academics and relevant to policymakers and industry analysts. Market-based emissions control instruments are increasingly in vogue, and we are pleased to provide this evaluation of the remarkable public policy experiment with emissions trading that was initiated by Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, the U.S. Acid Rain Program. We hope that our research will contribute to the consideration of market-based systems as tools for meeting at least some demands for environmental amenities.
As is the case for any major endeavor, there is a long list of people without whose assistance this book would never have appeared. This research has grown out of the inspired suggestion and accompanying funding by the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), which initially encouraged us to combine our collective experience to provide an evaluation for NAPAP's Quadrennial Report to the U.S. Congress.
Part III - Questions and Implications
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Book:
- Markets for Clean Air
- Published online:
- 10 December 2009
- Print publication:
- 19 June 2000, pp 251-252
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12 - Concluding Observations
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 314-322
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Summary
The U.S. Acid Rain Program – Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments – was passed by Congress and signed by President Bush to reduce SO2 emissions that contribute to acid rain. Neither Congress, nor President Bush, nor most of Title IV's other supporters conceived of the program as a policy experiment. Our analysis indicates that the Acid Rain Program has thus far been a notable success. Title IV more than achieved the SO2 emissions-reduction goal established for Phase I, and it did so on time, without extensive litigation, and at costs lower than predicted. Moreover, there has been 100% compliance by all affected sources. Not only have there been no violations of the law, but no administrative exemptions or exceptions have been granted to permit noncompliance. After all, no affected source has been able to claim that compliance would be a special hardship, since it could always meet its compliance obligations simply by purchasing allowances on the open market. We are unaware of any other U.S. environmental program that has achieved this much, and we find it impossible to believe that any feasible alternative command-and-control program could have done nearly as well. This performance justifies emission trading's recent emergence as a star on the environmental policy stage.
But, just as no single actor can excel in all roles, neither emissions trading nor any other approach to environmental policy can provide low-cost solutions to all environmental problems.
3 - The Political Economy of Allowance Allocations
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 31-76
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COMPETING THEORIES OF DISTRIBUTIVE POLITICS
In this chapter, we analyze how Congress, influenced by the executive branch and various special interests, distributed SO2 allowances among electric utilities as an integral part of the process of crafting acid rain legislation that could pass both houses of Congress and be signed by President Bush. The environmental economics and regulation literature contains essentially no empirical work on the economic effects of alternative market-based control mechanisms on different interest groups, largely because the historical record contains few applications of such mechanisms. In particular, little attention has been devoted to how interest-group politics and associated rent-seeking behavior affect the allocation of rights to pollute in the context of a tradable-permit system. Without this type of knowledge it is impossible to understand the political feasibility of alternative control instruments or how they might be structured to have a better chance of gaining acceptance in the political process. The ability to structure market-based mechanisms for internalizing environmental externalities that are acceptable politically will depend heavily on their incidence; that is, on their effects on different interest groups who are represented in one way or another in the branches of government that ultimately make policy decisions. Whenever valuable property rights are created by legislation, the associated allocation decisions are likely to be highly politicized in much the same way as is tax legislation or appropriations bills. Understanding better how the political process deals with such issues, in which costs and benefits are distributed among the population, can help in designing environmental control programs that are politically acceptable as well as theoretically appealing.
List of Tables
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp xiii-xvi
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9 - Cost of Compliance with Title IV in Phase I
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 221-250
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Summary
CONFUSION ABOUT CONTROL COSTS
The initially low price of allowances in Phase I led to some misunderstanding and controversy about the cost of compliance with Title IV. Specifically, the initially low and declining allowance prices were interpreted as an indication that the costs of complying with Title IV were dramatically less than had been anticipated. For instance, prominent representatives of President Clinton's Administration asserted that:
during the 1990 debates on the Clean Air Act's Acid Rain Program, industry initially projected the costs of an emission allowance…to be approximately $1, 500.… Today those allowances are selling for less than $100.
and
We've reduced the emissions that cause acid rain for less than a tenth of the price that was predicted.…
These statements err both in the interpretation of allowance prices and in the recollection of what earlier studies had estimated Title IV's costs to be. Our interpretation of the low allowance prices early in Phase I and of the subsequent doubling of allowance prices in 1998 is provided in Chapter 11. In this chapter we develop an estimate of the cost of complying with Title IV in Phase I and compare it with the predictions of the same cost made in earlier studies of Title IV. The objective in this chapter is not to estimate the cost savings attributable to emissions trading when compared to some hypothetical alternative emissions control mechanism. That more difficult analytic task will be addressed in Chapter 10.
8 - Title IV's Voluntary Compliance Program
- A. Denny Ellerman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Paul L. Joskow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Richard Schmalensee, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Juan-Pablo Montero, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Elizabeth M. Bailey
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- Markets for Clean Air
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- 10 December 2009
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- 19 June 2000, pp 197-220
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Summary
As noted in Chapter 1, Title IV includes a voluntary compliance program intended to enable owners of the 263 Table A units subject to Phase I to make some of the required emission reductions at other units, which then become Phase I-affected units. As we have also noted, the response to this program has been much greater than expected. More than half the electric utilities with Table A units have voluntarily brought units into Phase I in each of its first three years: 182 units in 1995, 161 in 1996, and 153 in 1997. One hundred thirty-eight units – more than half of these units – were subject to Phase I in all three years.
Yet, as encouraging as this response has been, on closer examination it serves to illustrate a general problem with such voluntary provisions. In principle, allowances should be allocated to voluntary units equal to what the emissions of these units would be if they were not part of the program (i.e., counterfactual emissions). If this could be done exactly, participation would be attractive only to units with particularly low abatement costs. In practice, however, allowance allocations generally differ from counterfactual emissions. Units with relatively low control costs that would receive an allocation below their counterfactual emissions are thereby discouraged from participation, while units with relatively high control costs are encouraged to participate by an allocation above their counterfactual emissions.