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Addressing personal protective equipment (PPE) decontamination: Methylene blue and light inactivates severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on N95 respirators and medical masks with maintenance of integrity and fit
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- Thomas Sean Lendvay, James Chen, Brian H. Harcourt, Florine E. M. Scholte, Ying Ling Lin, F. Selcen Kilinc-Balci, Molly M. Lamb, Kamonthip Homdayjanakul, Yi Cui, Amy Price, Belinda Heyne, Jaya Sahni, Kareem B. Kabra, Yi-Chan Lin, David Evans, Christopher N. Mores, Ken Page, Larry F. Chu, Eric Haubruge, Etienne Thiry, Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Constance Wielick, Tanner Clark, Thor Wagner, Emily Timm, Thomas Gallagher, Peter Faris, Nicolas Macia, Cyrus J. Mackie, Sarah M. Simmons, Susan Reader, Rebecca Malott, Karen Hope, Jan M. Davies, Sarah R. Tritsch, Lorène Dams, Hans Nauwynck, Jean-Francois Willaert, Simon De Jaeger, Lei Liao, Mervin Zhao, Jan Laperre, Olivier Jolois, Sarah J. Smit, Alpa N. Patel, Mark Mayo, Rod Parker, Vanessa Molloy-Simard, Jean-Luc Lemyre, Steven Chu, John M. Conly, May C. Chu
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- Journal:
- Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology / Volume 43 / Issue 7 / July 2022
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 May 2021, pp. 876-885
- Print publication:
- July 2022
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Objective:
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE), underscoring the urgent need for simple, efficient, and inexpensive methods to decontaminate masks and respirators exposed to severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We hypothesized that methylene blue (MB) photochemical treatment, which has various clinical applications, could decontaminate PPE contaminated with coronavirus.
Design:The 2 arms of the study included (1) PPE inoculation with coronaviruses followed by MB with light (MBL) decontamination treatment and (2) PPE treatment with MBL for 5 cycles of decontamination to determine maintenance of PPE performance.
Methods:MBL treatment was used to inactivate coronaviruses on 3 N95 filtering facepiece respirator (FFR) and 2 medical mask models. We inoculated FFR and medical mask materials with 3 coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, and we treated them with 10 µM MB and exposed them to 50,000 lux of white light or 12,500 lux of red light for 30 minutes. In parallel, integrity was assessed after 5 cycles of decontamination using multiple US and international test methods, and the process was compared with the FDA-authorized vaporized hydrogen peroxide plus ozone (VHP+O3) decontamination method.
Results:Overall, MBL robustly and consistently inactivated all 3 coronaviruses with 99.8% to >99.9% virus inactivation across all FFRs and medical masks tested. FFR and medical mask integrity was maintained after 5 cycles of MBL treatment, whereas 1 FFR model failed after 5 cycles of VHP+O3.
Conclusions:MBL treatment decontaminated respirators and masks by inactivating 3 tested coronaviruses without compromising integrity through 5 cycles of decontamination. MBL decontamination is effective, is low cost, and does not require specialized equipment, making it applicable in low- to high-resource settings.
Use of vitamin D supplements during infancy in an international feeding trial
- Eveliina Lehtonen, Anne Ormisson, Anita Nucci, David Cuthbertson, Susa Sorkio, Mila Hyytinen, Kirsi Alahuhta, Carol Berseth, Marja Salonen, Shayne Taback, Margaret Franciscus, Teba González-Frutos, Tuuli E Korhonen, Margaret L Lawson, Dorothy J Becker, Jeffrey P Krischer, Mikael Knip, Suvi M Virtanen, , Thomas Mandrup-Poulsen, Elias Arjas, Åke Lernmark, Barbara Schmidt, Jeffrey P. Krischer, Hans K. Åkerblom, Mila Hyytinen, Mikael Knip, Katriina Koski, Matti Koski, Eeva Pajakkala, Marja Salonen, David Cuthbertson, Jeffrey P. Krischer, Linda Shanker, Brenda Bradley, Hans-Michael Dosch, John Dupré, William Fraser, Margaret Lawson, Jeffrey L. Mahon, Mathew Sermer, Shayne P. Taback, Dorothy Becker, Margaret Franciscus, Anita Nucci, Jerry Palmer, Minna Pekkala, Suvi M. Virtanen, Jacki Catteau, Neville Howard, Patricia Crock, Maria Craig, Cheril L. Clarson, Lynda Bere, David Thompson, Daniel Metzger, Colleen Marshall, Jennifer Kwan, David K. Stephure, Daniele Pacaud, Wendy Schwarz, Rose Girgis, Marilyn Thompson, Shayne P. Taback, Daniel Catte, Margaret L. Lawson, Brenda Bradley, Denis Daneman, Mathew Sermer, Mary-Jean Martin, Valérie Morin, Lyne Frenette, Suzanne Ferland, Susan Sanderson, Kathy Heath, Céline Huot, Monique Gonthier, Maryse Thibeault, Laurent Legault, Diane Laforte, Elizabeth A. Cummings, Karen Scott, Tracey Bridger, Cheryl Crummell, Robyn Houlden, Adriana Breen, George Carson, Sheila Kelly, Koravangattu Sankaran, Marie Penner, Richard A. White, Nancy King, James Popkin, Laurie Robson, Eva Al Taji, Irena Aldhoon, Pavla Mendlova, Jan Vavrinec, Jan Vosahlo, Ludmila Brazdova, Jitrenka Venhacova, Petra Venhacova, Adam Cipra, Zdenka Tomsikova, Petra Krckova, Pavla Gogelova, Ülle Einberg, Mall-Anne Riikjärv, Anne Ormisson, Vallo Tillmann, Päivi Kleemola, Anna Parkkola, Heli Suomalainen, Anna-Liisa Järvenpää, Anu-Maaria Hämälainen, Hannu Haavisto, Sirpa Tenhola, Pentti Lautala, Pia Salonen, Susanna Aspholm, Heli Siljander, Carita Holm, Samuli Ylitalo, Raisa Lounamaa, Anja Nuuja, Timo Talvitie, Kaija Lindström, Hanna Huopio, Jouni Pesola, Riitta Veijola, Päivi Tapanainen, Abram Alar, Paavo Korpela, Marja-Liisa Käär, Taina Mustila, Ritva Virransalo, Päivi Nykänen, Bärbel Aschemeier, Thomas Danne, Olga Kordonouri, Dóra Krikovszky, László Madácsy, Yeganeh Manon Khazrai, Ernesto Maddaloni, Paolo Pozzilli, Carla Mannu, Marco Songini, Carine de Beaufort, Ulrike Schierloh, Jan Bruining, Margriet Bisschoff, Aleksander Basiak, Renata Wasikowa, Marta Ciechanowska, Grazyna Deja, Przemyslawa Jarosz-Chobot, Agnieszka Szadkowska, Katarzyna Cypryk, Malgorzata Zawodniak-Szalapska, Luis Castano, Teba Gonzalez Frutos, Mirentxu Oyarzabal, Manuel Serrano-Ríos, María Teresa Martínez-Larrad, Federico Gustavo Hawkins, Dolores Rodriguez Arnau, Johnny Ludvigsson, Malgorzata Smolinska Konefal, Ragnar Hanas, Bengt Lindblad, Nils-Osten Nilsson, Hans Fors, Maria Nordwall, Agne Lindh, Hans Edenwall, Jan Aman, Calle Johansson, Margrit Gadient, Eugen Schoenle, Dorothy Becker, Ashi Daftary, Margaret Franciscus, Carol Gilmour, Jerry Palmer, Rachel Taculad, Marilyn Tanner-Blasiar, Neil White, Uday Devaskar, Heather Horowitz, Lisa Rogers, Roxana Colon, Teresa Frazer, Jose Torres, Robin Goland, Ellen Greenberg, Maudene Nelson, Holly Schachner, Barney Softness, Jorma Ilonen, Massimo Trucco, Lynn Nichol, Erkki Savilahti, Taina Härkönen, Mikael Knip, Outi Vaarala, Kristiina Luopajärvi, Hans-Michael Dosch
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- Journal:
- Public Health Nutrition / Volume 17 / Issue 4 / April 2014
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 24 June 2013, pp. 810-822
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Objective
To examine the use of vitamin D supplements during infancy among the participants in an international infant feeding trial.
DesignLongitudinal study.
SettingInformation about vitamin D supplementation was collected through a validated FFQ at the age of 2 weeks and monthly between the ages of 1 month and 6 months.
SubjectsInfants (n 2159) with a biological family member affected by type 1 diabetes and with increased human leucocyte antigen-conferred susceptibility to type 1 diabetes from twelve European countries, the USA, Canada and Australia.
ResultsDaily use of vitamin D supplements was common during the first 6 months of life in Northern and Central Europe (>80 % of the infants), with somewhat lower rates observed in Southern Europe (>60 %). In Canada, vitamin D supplementation was more common among exclusively breast-fed than other infants (e.g. 71 % v. 44 % at 6 months of age). Less than 2 % of infants in the USA and Australia received any vitamin D supplementation. Higher gestational age, older maternal age and longer maternal education were study-wide associated with greater use of vitamin D supplements.
ConclusionsMost of the infants received vitamin D supplements during the first 6 months of life in the European countries, whereas in Canada only half and in the USA and Australia very few were given supplementation.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. 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Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
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- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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2 - Modeling individual and average human growth data from childhood to adulthood
- Edited by David Magnusson, Stockholms Universitet, Lars R. Bergman, Stockholms Universitet, Georg Rudinger, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn
- With Bertil Torestad, Stockholms Universitet
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- Problems and Methods in Longitudinal Research
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- 27 April 2010
- Print publication:
- 12 December 1991, pp 28-46
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Summary
INTRODUCTION
The first longitudinal growth study dates back to 1759 when Count de Montbeillard measured the body length of his son from birth to 18 years (Scammon, 1927; Tanner, 1962). Actually, when studying growth, there are two basically different approaches: longitudinal and crosssectional studies. In longitudinal growth studies, we measure the same children over several years at regular intervals (as was done by de Montbeillard) in order to be able to establish individual growth patterns. In cross-sectional growth studies, we measure children of different ages only once. A plot of the average height obtained at each age (or age group) depicts the average growth pattern in the sample. One should realize that the shape of the curve seen in an average growth pattern is different from the shape of individual growth curves (Hauspie, 1989). The information provided by the longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches is quite different. Both methods have their advantages and limitations. Whether the data concerns individual or average growth patterns, we are dealing with a series of measures of size (height or average height, for example) at particular ages, either precise chronological ages (in case of longitudinal studies) or mid-points of age classes (in case of cross-sectional studies). However, the researcher is quite often interested in determining the underlying continuous process of growth, from which he wants to derive certain characteristics, such as the age at maximum velocity at adolescence, for example.
Contents
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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- Worldwide Variation in Human Growth
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- 18 February 2010
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- 17 January 1991, pp vii-viii
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6 - Indo-Mediterraneans in the Near East, North Africa and India
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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- Worldwide Variation in Human Growth
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- 18 February 2010
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- 17 January 1991, pp 117-129
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Summary
The inhabitants of the Near East, North Africa and the Indian subcontinent have been grouped together here under the name Tndo- Mediterranean’. They have much in common physically, though there are also differences. We include the dark Hamites and Indo-Dravidians along with Egyptians, Kuwaitis, and Libyans. Even within India itself, Guha (1944) distinguished 51 different ethnic groups. However, as far as child growth is concerned, it seems that the principal dissimilarities are brought about by socioeconomic differences rather than by minor ethnic variations. Mediterranean peoples dwelling on the northern shores of the Mediterranean Sea have already been considered in Chapter 2, dealing with Europeans.
The growth studies
As can be seen in Table 7, data from these population groups are not numerous. From Egypt there is a growth study of the Egyptian Nubians (El-Nofely, 1978) who were resettled after the construction of the High Dam south of Aswan City. Whereas formerly they lived in small villages, they now live in urban centers. Two groups speak dialects of the Nubian language: the Kenouz and the Fededji; the third group are Arabic-speaking. There are new studies from mostly Arabic-speaking peoples in rural Khartoum (Sukkar et al., 1979), from schoolchildren in Libya (Abounaja & Gilmour, 1985), from infants in Israel (Palti et al., 1981, 1982) and from groups in various areas in India. These latter comprise children in private schools (Sidhu, Bhatragar & Dubey, 1982; P. Malhotra, unpubl.) and another group of lower socioeconomic school children (Singh, Sidhu & Malhotra, 1987) both in Patiala City, Punjab; infants in Chandigarh, Punjab (Bhalla, Kaul & Kumar, 1986); boys in Calcutta (Pakrasi et al., 1988) and Bod boys of Ladakh (Malik & Singh, 1978).
2 - Europeans in Europe
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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As in the first edition, Europeans in Europe have been chosen as the baseline population against which comparisons will be made with other world populations. The reason for this is the large number of investigations that have been carried out on Europeans in the past using standardized techniques. Europe also has the advantage of a population that is close to being genetically homogeneous. European populations do vary considerably in adult size, however, and this variation also is seen in the size of the children.
Selection of European studies
One of the main difficulties in making a comparative growth survey is that the various samples of children are rarely comparable in the strictest sense. Different investigators have often used different methods, not so much of measuring technique, but of sample size and selection, age grouping, number of measurers, and area sampled. For this reason, we have never pooled data from different studies in a country to calculate a national average. In some countries genuinely national samples have, been measured, and when these are available, we have used them. When they are not, we have used urban samples in preference to rural ones, for all the evidence at present shows that when there is a difference, children in cities grow better than those in rural areas. At times when we have found two good studies from the same country, we have recorded both in the tables.
Many countries collected and analyzed new data in the 1970s and 1980s and only these are presented here in Table 2. Data from 1955–70 will be found in the first edition of this book.
7 - Australian Aborigines and Pacific Island peoples
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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As we said in the first edition, geography alone is the reason for grouping inhabitants of the Pacific Islands together under one chapter heading. Ethnically, there are such dissimilar physical types as Australian Aborigines, Polynesians, Melanesians, Micronesians, Negritos and probably mixtures of at least the last four. The Australian Aborigines always have presented classification problems for anthropologists (Montagu, 1960, pp. 440–3).
The growth studies
In Chapter 3 we considered the European populations of Australia and New Zealand; in this chapter we discuss the aboriginal inhabitants of those areas (Table 8). There have been new studies of the growth and nutritional status of Australian Aborigines in the Kimberley region of Western Australia by a group of reseachers in Perth (Gracey et al., 1983, 1984; Gracey & Sullivan, 1988; Hitchcock et al., 1987). The authors state that the people live in a wide range of conditions, from remote, partly tribal communities to partly urbanized groups outside of country towns. All school-age children are enrolled in school although absenteeism is very common. The group of infants included some nontraditional Aborigines living in towns. There also are some data from two aboriginal settlements in eastern Australia: Cherbourg, near Brisbane, and Palm Island in Queensland (Fysh et al., 1977).
From New Guinea we have new data on the Bundi (Zemel & Jenkins, 1988) which form part of a larger survey of health and nutrition in villages and urban areas by the Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research. We also have new data from Pere village on the island of Manus (J. Schall, unpubl.).
4 - Africans in Africa and of African ancestry
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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Disease and malnutrition continue to be the major problems of Africa's children. Droughts and other natural disasters in various regions (Abbas, 1978) civil wars and guerrilla warfare have exacerbated these problems. Many international agencies such as the World Health Organization, the United States Agency for International Development, United Nations Children's Fund and Oxfam have been attempting to help in development and education, and relief when necessary. Some countries are also using their own resources for programs in maternal and child health and nutrition education.
Intestinal parasitism is widespread in Africa. We now know that infestation with Ascaris lumbricoides affects nutrition and growth of children. Not only do parasites deprive their hosts of nutrients, they impair intestinal absorption of fat, nitrogen and vitamin A and may reduce food intake (Crompton & Nesheim, 1982).
Unfortunately, we do not have data, as we had for European and European-derived populations, to assess whether secular increase in size has taken place in specific African populations. We have no new studies on the same populations that we reported in the first edition. However, some investigators have considered secular change in Africa. Billewicz & McGregor (1982) have pointed out that in 25 years there has been no secular increase in the Gambian villages of Keneba and Manduar. Prazuck et al. (1988), comparing the individual tribal groups, reported no change in adult male stature in Mali since 1885.
There are many new data from different regions, coming from well-off, rural and tribal groups. In general fewer parameters have been reported than for the groups we discussed in the first edition. Here we have mostly weight, height, arm circumference and triceps skinfold.
8 - Rate of maturation: population differences in skeletal, dental and pubertal development
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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So far we have been concerned with body size and shape as exemplified by height, weight and their relationship. But growth is a movement through time, and progress may be fast or slow. Two children may reach an identical ultimate height, but one with a tempo of growth (to use Franz Boas’ phrase adopted from classical music) which is slow, another with a tempo which is rapid. One girl reaches menarche, the first menstrual period, at 11.0 years, another at 15.0 years. Within a particular population final adult height is not related to the speed with which it is reached; on average, early and late developers end up almost exactly the same in height. Even in shape there is only a small difference, late-maturers ending usually as more linear people with a lower weight-for-height.
Thus tempo of physical development has to be studied separately from body size; there are differences in tempo between populations and no a priori reason why these differences should be related to differences in height and weight. Rate of maturation in body size may be measured by the percentage of mature height reached at successive ages, but this is only known for any individual after his whole growth has been completed. More widely used measures of maturity, therefore, are skeletal maturity (or bone age), dental maturity and pubertal maturity (or secondary sex character age). These measures are not dependent on childhood or adult body size. Each measure reaches the same final point in all normal persons (unlike height and weight).
1 - Introduction to comparative growth studies: methods and standards
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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A child's growth rate reflects, perhaps better than any other single index, his state of health and nutrition; and often indeed his psychological situation also. Similarly, the average values of children's heights and weights reflect accurately the state of a nation's public health and the average nutritional status of its citizens, when appropriate allowance is made for differences, iiany, in genetic potential. This is especially so in developing or disintegrating countries. Thus a well-designed growth study is a powerful tool with which to monitor the health of a population, or to pinpoint subgroups of a population whose share in economic and social benefits is less than it might be. Indeed as infant mortality rate goes down during a country's development, so the importance of monitoring growth rate increases.
There is no guarantee, however, that all populations have the same growth potential. There are certainly large differences between populations, in height and weight and the age of puberty for example, and it is now clear that a portion of these differences is genetic in origin, a portion (in the developing countries a large portion) environmental.
The first edition of this book, published in 1976, was the outcome of the International Biological Programme (Human Adaptability Section) which extended over the years 1964–74 under the auspices of the International Council of Scientific Unions. This worldwide effort resulted in 340 growth projects in 42 countries, and we made use of these, as well as other data, in a tabulation and summary of growth in populations around the world.
Appendix
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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9 - Genetic influence on growth: family and race comparisons
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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The ultimate size and shape that a child attains as an adult is the result of a continous interaction between genetical and environmental influences during the whole period of growth. Such interaction may be complex. Two genotypes which produce the same adult height under optimal environmental circumstances may produce different heights under circumstances of privation. Thus two children who would be the same height in a well-off community may not only both be smaller under poor economic conditions, but one may be significantly smaller than the other. This type of interaction, called non-additivity of genotype and environment, may be quite detailed and specific in its effects. If a particular environmental stimulus is lacking at a time when it is essential for the child (times known as ‘sensitive periods’), then the child's development may be shunted, as it were, from one line to another. We know, as yet, little of the details of such interactions, but quite enough to make oversimplified models scientifically suspect.
Statements about the relative contributions of heredity and environment to adult size and shape must therefore always specify the circumstances with some exactness. A biologically permissible statement (provided all the evidence is really available), is, for example: ‘Eighty-five per cent of the variance of height in the population of young adults growing up in middle class homes in a London suburb in the 1980s is due to genetical factors’. In a population growing up under famine conditions the percentage of variance due to genetical factors would be expected to be less. A particularly lucid discussion of these points may be found in Thoday (1965).
3 - European descendants in Australasia, Africa and the Americas
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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The period of European exploration in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries resulted in the establishment of colonies abroad. Migrants from Europe were widely distributed over the globe and formed permanent populations which have persisted in the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Africa. Though the last large-scale European migrations were those to North and South America in the early decades of this century, some migration still continues, particularly to Australia, New Zealand, and Canada.
In this chapter we shall attempt to consider populations that are comprised almost entirely of European, rather than of mixed descent. However, such distinctions are sometimes not stated in reports on child growth, especially those from Latin America.
The growth studies
The populations selected for analysis are listed in Table 3. From Canada we have new data only on French-speaking children: two longitudinal studies, one in Montreal and one in the city of Trois Rivieres. The latter study primarily involves physical performance and includes separate analyses of a rural area as well as the city itself. Since our last edition the United States National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) has published data from two National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys: NHANES I, collected from 1971–4, and NHANES II, collected from 1976–80. We will use only the latter. This publication (Najjar & Rowland, 1987) gives means for the entire sample which includes approximately 15 percent Afro-Americans. Since we wanted to separate the data on Euro-Americans from that on Afro-Americans, we have had the NCHS data tapes analyzed by ethnic group through the courtesy of the University of Texas Houston School of Public Health.
Frontmatter
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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Acknowledgements
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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5 - Asiatics in Asia and the Americas
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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In this chapter we are concerned with a third major group of peoples, here designated ‘Asiatics’. We employ this name to refer to the groups of peoples originating in the Far East: we include the classical Mongols of Mongolia, Tibet and northern China; the Arctic Eskimos; the American Indians or Amerindians who, although inhabitants of the Americas, originally migrated from Asia (MacNeish, 1971); and the Indonesian- Malays. The last group probably has had a varying amount of admixture with Indo-Mediterranean and African peoples (Montagu, 1960). Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos and Thais are some of the populations designated as Indonesian-Malay. There is great diversity in adult Asiatic populations, and this is reflected in the growth of the children.
The growth studies
A description of the recent growth studies we have selected is given in Table 6. There are two studies on growth in Tibetan children in Nepal (Beall, 1981; Pawson, 1977). We have one new study only on Alaskan Eskimos; this is on a small group on St Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea (Johnston et al., 1982).
There are a number of new studies on Amerindian and mestizo populations; notable among them are the various high-altitude projects in the Andes. Mueller and his colleagues have reported on the Multinational Andean Genetic and Health Program which consists of multidisciplinary studies of the Aymara in Chile and Bolivia (Mueller et al., 1978a,b; 1980; 1981). Stinson (1980; unpubl.) also has been studying the Aymara in the Lake Titicaca region outside La Paz and, with Frisancho, the Quechua in highland and lowland towns in Peru (Stinson & Frisancho, 1978).
10 - Environmental influence on growth
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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A considerable proportion of the mean differences in body size among the populations we have been examining is due to the effects of environmental conditions. Some of the differences between individuals within populations are also due to differences in environment. In the better-off populations of industrialized countries these latter differences are relatively small, while in the developing countries the gap between well-off and poor is greater. A child may receive numerous insults during growth and yet survive, but bodily adaptations for survival are made which may result in a slower tempo of growth and a smaller body size. If a whole population receives similar insults, such as a diet low in calories or protein, a small mean adult size results. If environmental conditions improve, the size both of children and adults increases. ‘Human height’ wrote Louis-Rene Villermé, the founder of public health in France, ‘becomes greater and growth takes place more rapidly, other things being equal, in proportion as the country is richer, comfort more general, houses, clothes and nourishment better and labour, fatigue and privation during infancy and youth less; in other words, the circumstances which accompany poverty delay the age at which complete stature is reached and stunt adult height’ (1829, cited in Tanner, 1981, p. 162).
There are many environmental factors which affect growth, and which combine in various proportions to constitute the environment of poverty; but in the final analysis most of them hinge upon the level of nutrition in conjunction with the prevalence of childhood infection.
Index
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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11 - Child growth and chronic disease in adults
- Phyllis B. Eveleth, National Institute on Aging, Bethesda, Maryland, James M. Tanner, University of London
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In this edition we address a question which has recently engaged the joint attention of epidemiologists and auxologists. There is mounting evidence that the seeds of some adult chronic diseases with their resulting fatalities are sown in infancy and childhood. Such diseases, it is said, are, at least in part, the long-term outcome of environmental events impinging on the infant and child, events not necessarily productive of clinical disease at the time of their occurrence. Growth, as we have shown in previous chapters, mirrors the cumulative effects of such events better, perhaps than any other index. So it is reasonable to ask: do differences in growth, as reflected in the end result of adult height or adult body build, relate to adult disease-specific morbidities and mortalities?
The question may be addressed in two ways. The more direct is to ask within a given population whether tall individuals, for instance, have a lower all-cause mortality than short ones. The less direct is to ask whether between or amongst populations there is an association between the mean height of the population and all-cause mortality. In the two instances the factors operating to cause the associations between stature and the endpoint are not necessarily the same.
Height
An example of the first approach has been presented by Waaler (1984), who linked height and weight measurements of all Norwegians aged 15 years and above taken between 1963 and 1975, with the death registry data in the Central Bureau of Statistics. The sample consisted of nearly 1.8 million individuals.