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Chapter 19 - Energy Access for Development
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- By Shonali Pachauri, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Abeeku Brew-Hammond, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Douglas F. Barnes, Energy for Development, Daniel H. Bouille, Bariloche Foundation, Stephen Gitonga, United Nations Development Programme, Vijay Modi, Columbia University, Gisela Prasad, University of Cape Town, Amitav Rath, Policy Research International Inc., Hisham Zerriffi, University of British Columbia, Touria Dafrallah, Environment and Development Action in the Third World, Conrado Heruela, United Nations Environment Programme, Francis Kemausuor, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Reza Kowsari, University of British Columbia, Yu Nagai, Vienna University of Technology, Kamal Rijal, United Nations Development Programme, Minoru Takada, United Nations Development Programme, Njeri Wamukonya, formerly United Nations Environment Programme, Jayant Sathaye, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Global Energy Assessment Writing Team
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- Book:
- Global Energy Assessment
- Published online:
- 05 September 2012
- Print publication:
- 27 August 2012, pp 1401-1458
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Summary
Executive Summary
Key Challenges
A quarter of humanity today lives without access to any electricity and almost one-half still depends on solid fuels such as unprocessed biomass, coal, or charcoal for its thermal needs. These people continue to suffer a multitude of impacts detrimental to their welfare. Most live in rural villages and urban slums in developing nations. Access to affordable modern energy carriers is a necessary, but insufficient step toward alleviating poverty and enabling the expansion of local economies.
Even among populations with physical access to electricity and modern fuels, a lack of affordability and reliable supplies limits the extent to which a transition to using these can occur. Those who can afford the improved energy carriers may still not be able to afford the upfront costs of connections or the conversion technology or equipment that makes that energy useful.
Beyond the obvious uses of energy for lighting, cooking, heating, and basic home appliances, uses for purposes that might bring economic development to an area are slow to emerge without institutional mechanisms in place that are conducive to fostering entrepreneurial activity and uses of energy for activities that can generate income. Without the expansion of energy uses to activities that generate income, the economic returns to energy providers are likely to remain unattractive in poor and dispersed rural markets.
Significant success has been achieved with small pilot projects to improve energy access in some rural areas and among poor communities in urban areas. But subsequently, less thought is focused on how to scale-up from these small pilot and demonstration projects to market development and meeting the needs of the larger population.
Chapter 18 - Urban Energy Systems
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- By Arnulf Grubler, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Austria and Yale University, Xuemei Bai, Australian National University, Thomas Buettner, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Shobhakar Dhakal, Global Carbon Project and National Institute for Environmental Studies, David J. Fisk, Imperial College London, Toshiaki Ichinose, National Institute for Environmental Studies, James E. Keirstead, Imperial College London, Gerd Sammer, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, David Satterthwaite, International Institute for Environment and Development, Niels B. Schulz, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Austria and Imperial College, Nilay Shah, Imperial College London, Julia Steinberger, The Institute of Social Ecology, Austria and University of Leeds, Helga Weisz, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Gilbert Ahamer, University of Graz, Timothy Baynes, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Daniel Curtis, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, Michael Doherty, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Nick Eyre, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, Junichi Fujino, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Keisuke Hanaki, University of Tokyo, Mikiko Kainuma, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Shinji Kaneko, Hiroshima University, Manfred Lenzen, University of Sydney, Jacqui Meyers, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Hitomi Nakanishi, University of Canberra, Victoria Novikova, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, Krishnan S. Rajan, International Institute of Information Technology, Seongwon Seo, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Ram M. Shrestha, Asian Institute of Technology, Priyadarshi R. Shukla, Indian Institute of Management, Alice Sverdlik, International Institute for Environment and Development, Jayant Sathaye, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Global Energy Assessment Writing Team
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- Book:
- Global Energy Assessment
- Published online:
- 05 September 2012
- Print publication:
- 27 August 2012, pp 1307-1400
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Executive Summary
More than 50% of the global population already lives in urban settlements and urban areas are projected to absorb almost all the global population growth to 2050, amounting to some additional three billion people. Over the next decades the increase in rural population in many developing countries will be overshadowed by population flows to cities. Rural populations globally are expected to peak at a level of 3.5 billion people by around 2020 and decline thereafter, albeit with heterogeneous regional trends. This adds urgency in addressing rural energy access, but our common future will be predominantly urban. Most of urban growth will continue to occur in small-to medium-sized urban centers. Growth in these smaller cities poses serious policy challenges, especially in the developing world. In small cities, data and information to guide policy are largely absent, local resources to tackle development challenges are limited, and governance and institutional capacities are weak, requiring serious efforts in capacity building, novel applications of remote sensing, information, and decision support techniques, and new institutional partnerships. While ‘megacities’ with more than 10 million inhabitants have distinctive challenges, their contribution to global urban growth will remain comparatively small.
Energy-wise, the world is already predominantly urban. This assessment estimates that between 60–80% of final energy use globally is urban, with a central estimate of 75%. Applying national energy (or GHG inventory) reporting formats to the urban scale and to urban administrative boundaries is often referred to as a ‘production’ accounting approach and underlies the above GEA estimate.
Chapter 9 - Renewable Energy in the Context of Sustainable Development
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- By Jayant Sathaye, Oswaldo Lucon, Atiq Rahman, John Christensen, Fatima Denton, Junichi Fujino, Garvin Heath, Monirul Mirza, Hugh Rudnick, August Schlaepfer, Andrey Shmakin, Gerhard Angerer, Christian Bauer, Morgan Bazilian, Robert Brecha, Peter Burgherr, Leon Clarke, Felix Creutzig, James Edmonds, Christian Hagelüken, Gerrit Hansen, Nathan Hultman, Michael Jakob, Susanne Kadner, Manfred Lenzen, Jordan Macknick, Eric Masanet, Yu Nagai, Anne Olhoff, Karen Olsen, Michael Pahle, Ari Rabl, Richard Richels, Joyashree Roy, Tormod Schei, Christoph von Stechow, Jan Steckel, Ethan Warner, Tom Wilbanks, Yimin Zhang, Volodymyr Demkine, Ismail Elgizouli, Jeffrey Logan, Susanne Kadner
- Edited by Ottmar Edenhofer, Ramón Pichs-Madruga, Youba Sokona, Kristin Seyboth, Susanne Kadner, Timm Zwickel, Patrick Eickemeier, Gerrit Hansen, Steffen Schlömer, Christoph von Stechow, Patrick Matschoss
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- Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation
- Published online:
- 05 December 2011
- Print publication:
- 21 November 2011, pp 707-790
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Summary
Executive Summary
Historically, economic development has been strongly correlated with increasing energy use and growth of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Renewable energy (RE) can help decouple that correlation, contributing to sustainable development (SD). In addition, RE offers the opportunity to improve access to modern energy services for the poorest members of society, which is crucial for the achievement of any single of the eight Millennium Development Goals.
Theoretical concepts of SD can provide useful frameworks to assess the interactions between SD and RE. SD addresses concerns about relationships between human society and nature. Traditionally, SD has been framed in the three-pillar model—Economy, Ecology, and Society—allowing a schematic categorization of development goals, with the three pillars being interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Within another conceptual framework, SD can be oriented along a continuum between the two paradigms of weak sustainability and strong sustainability. The two paradigms differ in assumptions about the substitutability of natural and human-made capital. RE can contribute to the development goals of the three-pillar model and can be assessed in terms of both weak and strong SD, since RE utilization is defined as sustaining natural capital as long as its resource use does not reduce the potential for future harvest.
Emissions scenarios, costs, and implementation considerations of REDD-plus programs
- JAYANT SATHAYE, KENNETH ANDRASKO, PETER CHAN
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- Journal:
- Environment and Development Economics / Volume 16 / Issue 4 / August 2011
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 11 April 2011, pp. 361-380
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Greenhouse gas emissions from the forestry sector are estimated to be 8.4 GtCO2-eq./year or about 17% of the global emissions. We estimate that the cost for reducing deforestation is low in Africa and several times higher in Latin America and Southeast Asia. These cost estimates are sensitive to the uncertainties of how much unsustainable high-revenue logging occurs, little understood transaction and program implementation costs, and barriers to implementation including governance issues. Due to lack of capacity in the affected countries, achieving reduction or avoidance of carbon emissions will require extensive REDD-plus programs. Preliminary REDD-plus Readiness cost estimates and program descriptions for Indonesia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Guyana and Mexico show that roughly one-third of potential REDD-plus mitigation benefits might come from avoided deforestation and the rest from avoided forest degradation and other REDD-plus activities.
15 - Bottom-up modeling of energy and greenhouse gas emissions: approaches, results, and challenges to inclusion of end-use technologies
- from Part III - Mitigation of greenhouse gases
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- By Jayant A. Sathaye, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley, CA, USA
- Edited by Michael E. Schlesinger, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Haroon S. Kheshgi, Joel Smith, Francisco C. de la Chesnaye, John M. Reilly, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Tom Wilson, Charles Kolstad, University of California, Santa Barbara
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- Book:
- Human-Induced Climate Change
- Published online:
- 06 December 2010
- Print publication:
- 11 October 2007, pp 171-180
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Summary
Introduction
Two general approaches have been used for the integrated assessment of energy demand and supply – the so-called “bottom-up” and “top-down” approaches. The bottom-up approach focuses on individual technologies for delivering energy services, such as household durable goods and industrial process technologies. For such technologies, the approach attempts to estimate the costs and benefits associated with investments in alternative fuels and technologies, and increased energy efficiency, often in the context of reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission or other environmental impacts. The top-down method assumes a general equilibrium or macroeconomic perspective, wherein costs are defined in terms of changes in economic output, income, or GDP, typically from the imposition of energy or emissions taxes.
A fundamental difference between the two approaches is in the perspective each typically takes on consumer and firm behavior, and the performance of markets for energy efficiency. The bottom-up approach typically assumes that various market factors (“barriers”) prevent consumers from taking actions that would be in their private self-interest, that is, would result in the provision of energy services at lower cost. These market barriers include lack of information about energy efficiency opportunities, lack of access to capital to finance energy efficiency investment, and misplaced incentives which separate responsibilities for making capital investments and paying operating costs. In contrast, the top-down approach typically assumes that consumers and firms correctly perceive, and act in, their private self-interest (are utility and profit maximizers), and that unregulated markets serve to deliver optimal investments in energy efficiency as a function of prevailing prices.
14 - Transportation in Developing Nations: Managing the Institutional and Technological Transition to a Low-Emissions Future
- Edited by Irving M. Mintzer, Stockholm Environment Institute
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- Book:
- Confronting Climate Change
- Published online:
- 06 January 2010
- Print publication:
- 11 June 1992, pp 195-216
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Summary
Editor's Introduction
The world is caught in a seemingly insolvable dilemma. On one hand, in both industrialized and developing countries, consumers are increasingly demanding mobility—both for themselves and for goods from far away. The most convenient, and in many cases most desired solution is transport by motor vehicles. But as Jayant Sathaye and Michael Walsh note in this chapter, increasing motor vehicle use inevitably leads to a range of air pollutant emissions to the atmosphere —along with congestion and inefficient use of fuel. These in turn exacerbate both environmental and economic problems. As developing countries become more urbanized and increasingly dependent on cars and trucks, they will confront the linked problems of heavy traffic, urban pollution, high accident rates and low vehicle efficiencies. These developments suggest to Sathaye and Walsh that there is a growing need for new and more sustainable transportation strategies.
Unfortunately, the trend is in the opposite direction. Sathaye and Walsh document how desires for mobility in developing countries have already brought forth a conventional vehicle fleet that is dependent on liquid fuels — principally oil. Expanding industrial markets spur demands for motorized freight transport. As economies grow, freight transport traditionally shifts modes —from rail to roads and air. The gradual movement away from non-motorized transport—which depended on animal carts, bicycles, and people on foot—toward increasing reliance on cars, buses, and trucks has led to multipurpose use of roads with consequent increases in congestion, risks of collisions, and decreases in fuel efficiency.