30 results
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
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Contributors
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- By Shyamkrishna Balganesh, Dan L. Burk, Eric R. Claeys, Thomas F. Cotter, Hanoch Dagan, Richard A. Epstein, Jeanne C. Fromer, Wendy J. Gordon, Paul J. Heald, Steven Hetcher, David Lametti, Mark A. Lemley, Margaret H. Lemos, Mark P. McKenna, Peter S. Menell, Gideon Parchomovsky, Lee Petherbridge, Michael Risch, Jennifer E. Rothman, Emily Sherwin, Henry E. Smith, Madhavi Sunder, Molly Shaffer Van Houweling, R. Polk Wagner, Christopher S. Yoo
- Edited by Shyamkrishna Balganesh, University of Pennsylvania Law School
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- Intellectual Property and the Common Law
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- 05 September 2013
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- 02 September 2013, pp ix-x
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The Catholme Ceremonial Complex, Staffordshire, UK
- Henry P. Chapman, Mark Hewson, Margaret S. Watters, Lawrence Barfield, Christopher Bronk Ramsey, Gordon Cook, Rowena Gale, Pam Grinter, Derek Hamilton, Rob Ixer, Peter Marshall, Wendy Smith, Ann Woodward
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- Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society / Volume 76 / 2010
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- 04 March 2013, pp. 135-163
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During the 1960s and 1970s, aerial reconnaissance on the northern side of the confluence of the Rivers Trent, Tame, and Mease in Staffordshire revealed a cluster of features indicative of prehistoric ceremonial activity. Some of the features within the cluster are morphologically unique, but a lack of previous investigation meant that their dating, phasing, and function were unknown. This paper details the results of a multi-disciplinary approach to addressing these questions about the complex and to place it into its contemporary landscape context. The results indicate that the complex represents numerous phases of symbolic and ceremonial activity extending from the late Neolithic and into the early Bronze Age. Furthermore, it has shown how these structures fit within a wider landscape of ceremonial activity extending back to the earlier Neolithic and continuing into the Bronze Age.
10 - Health benefits
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- Social Security Policies in Industrial Countries
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- 24 February 1989, pp 197-225
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Summary
Unlike most of the items in the cost of living, the costs of illness vary greatly from family to family and from person to person. In any given month or year, serious and extremely costly illnesses strike only a relatively small proportion of the population, but their costs can be catastrophic, especially in this era of astronomical hospital charges. Even the less severe illnesses that result in a few days’ loss of work are unevenly distributed. Hence the pooling of risks through insurance is particularly appropriate in meeting the costs of illness, and, as we have noted in Chapter 3, the mutual aid funds and friendly societies that were formed in the nineteenth century were especially concerned with meeting the costs of short-term sickness. They tended to provide modest cash benefits for loss of work and a portion of medical expenses.
Not only does the incidence of illness vary among persons generally, but also certain groups in the population are particularly prone to experience illness, as the data in Table 10.1 show. Women are more likely to have restricted-activity days than men (partly due to pregnancy and childbirth), blacks than whites (partly, at least, because they are more likely to be employed in heavy labor), and persons aged 65 and older than those under age 65 by a very large margin. Particularly striking, also, is the pronounced inverse relationship to income. The high average days of illness in the two lower income groups reflect to some extent the interdependence of ill health and low earnings, and also the large proportion of elderly people in the low-income population.
6 - Long-term invalidity programs
- Margaret S. Gordon
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Summary
Disability is a social problem of major dimensions, affecting more than one-sixth of the noninstitutionalized working age population, producing a major part of the manpower wastage, creating loss of earnings and family income, and requiring a substantial investment of public resources in income maintenance programs.
(Haber, 1967)Incidence of long-term disability
Provisions for long-term disability are important not only in their own right, but also because they have played an important role in relation to the trend toward earlier retirement. Many of those who seek early retirement are disabled, and long-term disability pensions facilitate early retirement for older persons who are disabled but are not yet eligible for early retirement benefits. Moreover, disability increases sharply with advancing age and reaches a substantial percentage of the population in the early-60s age group – that is, in the years preceding age 65 (still the most prevalent normal retirement age).
Unusually detailed data relating to the disabled are available for the United States, where a number of surveys have been conducted by the Social Security Administration. I shall start by discussing these data because it is important to have an understanding of the incidence and nature of long-term disability before considering the policies relating to disability benefits. To the extent that I have seen data for other countries, they are very similar to the American data (see, for example, Townsend, 1979, on Britain; Koch-Nielsen, 1980, on Denmark; and Wadensjö, 1984b, on Sweden).
A large-scale survey conducted in 1972 indicated that 15.6 million persons, or nearly 15 percent of the population aged 20 to 64, were disabled.
Preface
- Margaret S. Gordon
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Summary
When I first conceived the plans for this book in the mid-1960s, social security programs were experiencing expansion and liberalization throughout the industrial world. Now, two decades later, in an environment of retarded economic growth and severe unemployment, the need for social security expenditures to mitigate the impacts of unemployment and economic deprivation has increased enormously, but the capacity of governments to meet this need is being severely limited because of the necessity of budgetary restraint. The result is a constant conflict, and, in conservative and right-wing circles, a growing tendency to place the blame for persistent unemployment on the generosity of the “welfare state.”
My aim in this volume is to provide a comparative analysis of social security policies in industrial countries, not simply in their general outlines, but in their major features, including the scope and adequacy of benefits and the structure of financing provisions in each of the main types of social security programs – pension programs, health benefit programs, unemployment and manpower programs, children's allowances and family policies, and public assistance.
Included are 28 industrial countries. I have omitted a few of the smaller industrial countries, such as Iceland, Luxemburg, and Portugal, as well as industrial countries in Latin America. It goes without saying, of course, that I cannot possibly cover all the details of the programs of 28 countries. And yet, for certain statistical purposes, such as social security expenditures as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP), it is extremely useful to analyze the data for as many as 28 countries.
Abbreviations
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Appendix 1
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- 24 February 1989, pp 348-350
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11 - Unemployment compensation
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- 24 February 1989, pp 226-251
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Summary
Unemployment was the last of the risks confronting the worker in modern industrial societies to be protected by a compulsory social insurance system. Benefits for the aged and the ill were, on the whole, less controversial, whereas deeply embedded in poor relief policies was the notion that the “able-bodied poor” were responsible for their own idleness and therefore must be harshly treated. In England, toward the end of the nineteenth century, this meant that, in general, they were to be denied “outdoor relief” and were to be sent to the workhouse. Policies in some of the continental European countries were less harsh, but were nevertheless punitive (see, e.g., de Schweinitz, 1943, and Heclo, 1974).
Moreover, prevailing economic thought weighed against intervention on behalf of the unemployed. Say's “law of markets,” first proclaimed by the French economist in 1803, held in its simplified version that supply creates its own demand and that therefore the economy will adjust to its potential without need of government intervention. It was not until the latter part of the nineteenth century that economists like Knut Wicksell in Sweden undertook studies of business cycles and confirmed the existence of recurring involuntary unemployment. Even then, adjustments at the micro level, such as wage reductions, were the preferred response. It was not until after the publication of Keynes's General Theory (1936) that the principle that governments should be responsible for maintaining full employment began to take hold. Keynesian policies were dominant in the first few decades after World War II, but in the 1970s some economists began to question the notion that most unemployment was involuntary.
Appendix 2
- Margaret S. Gordon
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16 - Conclusions
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- 24 February 1989, pp 336-347
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Summary
Since the mid-1970s, social security policies in industrial countries have been forced to adjust to changing economic and social circumstances that have frequently placed a strain on their resources. Not only has there been the problem of rising unemployment, but also severe inflation in the late 1970s and early 1980s inhibited many governments from pursuing expansionary fiscal policies. Of special concern, for its social as well as its economic implications, has been the severity of the youth unemployment problem. Another serious problem has been the growth of family instability, resulting from rising illegitimacy rates, increasing divorce and separation rates, and cohabitation.
How national policies reacted to these problems has been the subject of much of the discussion in this volume. The problems are not likely to “go away,” and there will be a continuing need for adjustments to meet them. And yet, there is growing evidence that the countries that have pursued vigorous policies to combat unemployment on both the demand and the supply sides of the labor market have succeeded in holding down the level of joblessness.
Although we have not found a very consistent inverse relationship between social security expenditures and military expenditures as a percentage of GNP, it is pertinent to observe that the three Western European countries identified by Soskice (1987) as pursuing policies that held the unemployment rate to low levels – Austria, Norway, and Sweden – all had relatively low military expenditures as a percentage of GNP in 1982 (Statistical Abstract…, 1985, 866). Austria's military expenditures were especially low (only 1.2 percent of GNP). These three countries also spent a comparatively large percentage of GNP on social security.
14 - Public assistance and guaranteed income proposals
- Margaret S. Gordon
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Introduction
Modern public assistance is usually the path of last resort for the needy who cannot qualify for benefits from other programs. It is more humane than old poor relief systems, less restrictive in applying the means test, and much less stigmatizing. Moreover, in many countries it is now subject to national standards and wholly or partly financed from national budgets, even though it tends to be administered locally. Nevertheless, it has not altogether lost its stigmatizing tendency, and this, along with ignorance of the provisions, helps to account for the fact that what the British call the “take-up” rate (the proportion of eligible persons who apply for and receive public assistance) tends to be far below 100 percent.
In the Middle Ages, poor relief was the province of the Church and was governed by Canon law. The Church distinguished between the holy voluntary poverty of a St. Francis of Assisi and idle parasitism. It also distinguished between the “able-bodied poor” and those who were poor because they were ailing or too young or too old to work – that is, between the deserving and undeserving poor. It was the duty of the wealthy to provide for the poor – this was the way to heaven. The role of the parish was central in the administration of poor relief, and this was the basis of the important role played by the parish after the Reformation. The medieval hospital also played an important role, as did the lord of the manor, who was expected to care for aging serfs, and the medieval guilds, which had mutual funds to care for ailing and aging members in some cases (Tierney, 1959).
Acknowledgments
- Margaret S. Gordon
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7 - Industrial injuries programs
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- 24 February 1989, pp 134-156
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We come now to industrial injuries programs, which in most countries represent the oldest form of social security. In the United States, following the British practice, they were usually referred to as workmen's compensation programs until the purging of sexist language led to use of the term workers’ compensation, whereas in Europe they are usually called industrial injuries or employment injuries programs.
Before the adoption of industrial injuries legislation, the worker who was injured in the course of his or her employment could secure redress only by suing the employer. Under the codes civiles on the continent of Europe, the defenses available to employers were more limited than under British common law, but the differences were not great. In the vast majority of cases employers were able to defend themselves against the allegation of fault, and very few cases were won by injured workers or their survivors.
Certain groups of workers, however, received compensation under special laws or provisions that date as far back as the eighteenth century, or in some cases even earlier, relating to disabled miners, seamen, and domestic workers. A Prussian law of 1838 made the railroad companies responsible for injuries to passengers and employees, except where the accident was attributable to the negligence of the injured person or an “act of God.”
Prewar legislation
The German law of 1884
One of the earliest acts of the German Imperial Government, adopted in 1871, was an employers’ liability law, which applied to factories, mines, and railroads. However, dissatisfaction with the experience under this law was expressed on the floor of Parliament repeatedly during the following decade.
References
- Margaret S. Gordon
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15 - International linkages
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- 24 February 1989, pp 328-335
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Thus far we have been considering social security provisions on a country by country basis, with little reference to how those moving between countries might acquire social security rights or how the provisions of a given country might be affected by bilateral or multilateral agreements. On occasion, we have referred to ILO or ISSA reports and to the directive of the European Economic Community relating to equality of treatment of men and women in social security matters, but there is a broad field of international cooperation and agreements that has yet to be explored.
Over the course of the present century, there has developed a network of bilateral agreements, under which workers moving from one country to another may become eligible for benefits in the country to which they have moved, or in some cases may receive credit for contributions made to social security schemes in the country from which they have moved. Second, international organizations have developed regulations providing for the social security rights of migrant workers and for minimum social security standards that become effective in the countries ratifying them. The oldest and largest of these organizations is the ILO, dating from 1919 and including (as of 1983) 144 countries, or the vast majority of members of the United Nations. Also active in developing social security standards is the Council of Europe, dating from 1949 and including 22 European countries.
More recently the European Communities have become active in this field. They include the European Coal and Steel Community, dating from 1952, and the European Economic Community (EEC) or Common Market, established under the Treaty of Rome of 1957, which became effective in 1958.
3 - National old-age pension programs: basic structure
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- 24 February 1989, pp 36-55
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The problem of poverty in old age
The forces responsible for poverty in old age in industrializing societies are demographic, economic, and social. The long-run decline in both death rates and birth rates results in a rising proportion of elderly persons in the population. Changes in technology and in the occupational structure of the labor force tend to place older people at a disadvantage in competing for available jobs, to bring on earlier retirement, and to render the transition from full-time work to retirement a more disrupting and abrupt process for the average worker. Finally, although it has frequently been suggested that the increase in geographical mobility and the process of urbanization have tended to weaken family ties, sociological studies have shown that, in fact, most elderly people live near to and have frequent contact with at least one adult child (e.g., Shanas et al., 1968).
Basic to an understanding of the problem of poverty in old age is the fact that it does not suddenly appear at age 65, or at some more or less arbitrarily determined age. Associated as it is with declining job opportunities, it may appear well before age 65, or not until some years later. Declining job opportunities tend to be attributable to chronic illness or disability, reluctance of employers to hire older job seekers, or the desire of employers to replace older workers with young people who have had more recent education or training.
5 - The age of retirement
- Margaret S. Gordon
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Summary
One of the most important dilemmas in relation to income security for the aged stems from the conflict between demographic trends, which suggest the desirability of gradually raising the conventional age of retirement, and economic forces, which tend to exert pressure toward earlier retirement. There has been a pronounced trend toward earlier retirement of elderly men in industrial countries throughout the period since the latter part of the nineteenth century, whereas in the case of women the proportion in the labor force at advanced ages has been small during the entire period.
Since the 1960s, the trend toward earlier retirement of men has continued in industrial countries, whereas the labor force participation rates of elderly women have not changed greatly, at least for those aged 65 or more. Moreover, numerous measures have been adopted to facilitate early retirement, and, at the same time, the concept of a more flexible retirement age in both directions has been encouraged through the provision not only of early retirement measures but also of incentives for postponing retirement under national social security policies.
Although the long-term trend toward increased life expectancy has chiefly reflected the increase in life expectancy at birth, there has been some tendency in the past few decades for life expectancy at age 65 to increase at a more pronounced rate than life expectancy at birth, at least in some of the industrial countries.
Social Security Policies in Industrial Countries
- A Comparative Analysis
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- Published online:
- 06 July 2010
- Print publication:
- 24 February 1989
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After 25 years of expansion and liberalisation in the post-war period, social security policies in industrial countries have been encountering stresses and strains in the 1970s and 1980s in an environment of slower economic growth, concern over inflation and high unemployment. This has led to intensified controversy between conservatives, who blame economic instability on the generosity of the welfare state and liberals who defend the role of social security programmes in contributing to economic stability and preventing people from falling into poverty. The discussion focuses on questions such as the relative merits of earnings-related, income-tested and universal benefits; who bears the financial burden; and the impact of social security benefits on incentives to work. Among the controversial issues receiving considerable attention are the arguments over the persistence of high unemployment in Western Europe, the attacks on 'entitlements' that benefit the middle class and the growing problem of disadvantaged youth, especially in the ghetto areas of large cities in some of the Western European countries and in the United States.
Frontmatter
- Margaret S. Gordon
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- Book:
- Social Security Policies in Industrial Countries
- Published online:
- 06 July 2010
- Print publication:
- 24 February 1989, pp i-iv
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- Chapter
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