The aim of this study was to assess unconsciousness in pigs during exposure to CO2 through changes in the middle latency auditory evoke potentials (MLAEP) of the central nervous system (CNS), blood parameters (pH, carbon dioxide partial pressure [pCO2], oxygen partial pressure [pO2], oxygen saturation [SatO2] and bicarbonate [HCO−3]), behaviour and the corneal reflex. The MLEAP did not decrease significantly until after 60 s exposure to CO2. The blood parameters (decreased pH, pO2 and SatO2 and increased pCO2 and HCO3) changed 53 s after the onset of immersion. The burst suppression index (BS%) and the A-line ARX index (AAI) from the MLEAP recovered basal levels at 136 and 249 s, respectively. The first blood parameter to return to basal levels was HCO−3 at 76 s of exposure, followed by SatO2 at 180 s, pH and pO2 at 210 s and pCO2 at 240 s. During exposure to the gas, pigs exhibited lateral head movements and sneezing (10.3 s), gasping (23.5 s) and vocalisation (26.1 s). Furthermore, all pigs demonstrated muscular excitation after between 19 and 39 s exposure, when the AAI and BS% values were not significantly different from basal values. It was suggested, therefore, that these excitatory movements represent conscious movement, indicative of aversion to the gas. According to our results, loss of consciousness began, on average, after 60 s inhalation of 90% CO2. During exposure to the gas, decreased brain activity was seen, immediately following the changes in blood parameters. Following exposure, the restoration of blood parameters to basal levels allows a return to normal brain activity.

The stability and uniformity of the following gas mixtures: 90% argon; 85% argon and 15% carbon dioxide (CO2); 70% argon and 30% CO2; 98% nitrogen (N2); 92% N2 and 8% CO2; 90% N2 and 10% CO2; 85% N2 and 15% CO2; 80% N2 and 20% CO2; 70% N2 and 30% CO2; and 90% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air were assessed in a commercial dip-lift stunning system when the cradle was either stationary or in motion. The gas mixtures of 90% argon, 85% argon and 15% CO2, 70% argon and 30% CO2, 85% N2 and 15% CO2, 80% N2 and 20% CO2, 70% N2 and 30% CO2 and 90% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air could be sustained in a commercial dip-lift stunning system. The stability of the gas mixtures 92% N2 and 8% CO2, and 90% N2 and 10% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air were lower than in the previous cases. On the other hand, an N2 concentration higher than 94% by volume in atmospheric air could not be sustained in the stunning system. In addition, gas mixtures of argon and CO2 showed a higher stability than gas mixtures of N2 and CO2. The uniformity at different levels inside the pit (defined as the capacity of the gas to maintain its concentration constant at different levels inside the pit) was higher in 90% argon, or argon and CO2 mixtures and N2 and CO2 mixtures than in 90% CO2. This fact ensures that for the whole time the animals are inside the pit, the same conditions are applied, which is not the case for 90% CO2.

The objective of the present study was to assess the sensitivity and feasibility of the Welfare Quality® (WQ) protocol for finishing pigs in 10 Spanish slaughterhouses. Sensitivity refers to the ability of the WQ assessment system to discriminate between slaughter conditions whilst feasibility denotes that the protocol is concise and easy to implement. On arrival at the plant, the incidence of dead, sick and panting animals was assessed in 1,002 (± 93) pigs per abattoir. During unloading, the percentage of pigs that slipped, fell, showed reluctance to move or turned back and were lame was also assessed. In the lairage pens, the stocking density and the percentage of pigs that were panting, shivering, and huddling was assessed in a total of 346 (± 81.0) pigs per abattoir. Stunning effectiveness, slaughter checks and skin lesions were also assessed in 60 animals per abattoir. For the majority of measures, any differences between slaughterhouses were found to be attributable to the installation itself and the management of the slaughterhouse, such as generalised fear, slipping and falling or stunning effectiveness, as opposed to measures taken to assess transport conditions or farm origin, such as lameness or sick and dead animals. The study protocol took 5.5 h for one observer to complete, in a slaughterhouse killing more than 550,000 pigs a year, although this time could increase dramatically in smaller abattoirs due to delays in the arrival of lorries. The protocol provides a general overview of the state of welfare of animals at the slaughterhouse and can readily identify specific problems in certain areas, such as stunning of animals.

Inhalation of concentrations greater than 30% of carbon dioxide (CO2) by volume in atmospheric air causes aversion in pigs. The objective of this study was to assess, using aversion learning techniques and behavioural studies, the aversion to three alternative gas mixtures of nitrogen (N2) and CO2: 70% N2 and 30% CO2 (70N30C), 80% N2 and 20% CO2 (80N20C) and 85% N2 and 15% CO2 (85N15C). The experiment consisted of two trials of three groups of ten pigs each. Pigs were placed individually at the starting point of the test facility and allowed to enter the crate of a dip-lift stunning system during one control session with atmospheric air and three treatment sessions with one of the gas treatments in each group. When the pit contained any of the three gas mixtures, the time taken to cross the raceway and enter the crate did not increase compared to the control session. However, when exposed to the gas mixtures, the majority (85.80%) of pigs performed attempted retreats in the crate, 22.22% exhibited escape attempts, and 7.91% vocalised, without differences between gas mixtures. The percentage of pigs gasping was higher when exposed to 70N30C compared to 80N20C and 85N15C. The results suggest that pigs show signs of aversion to the inhalation of 15 to 30% CO2 in nitrogen atmosphere compared to atmospheric air but the aversion response did not increase in consecutive sessions.

The most widely used stunning method in sheep is electrical. However, in lambs, this method leads to rupture of the blood vessels, provoking ecchymoses. In pigs (Sus scrofa), the use of CO2-stunning systems has increased in popularity due to positive effects on meat quality and animal welfare (movement of animals in groups). The aim here was to assess the effectiveness of a progressive exposure to 90% carbon dioxide (CO2) in inducing unconsciousness in lambs (Ovis aries) through changes in the middle latency auditory-evoked potentials (MLAEP) of the central nervous system (CNS), blood parameters (pH, carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO2), oxygen partial pressure (pO2), oxygen saturation (SatO2) and bicarbonate (HCO3J, behaviour (head-shaking, sneezing, gasping and gagging) and physiological reflexes (corneal reflex, breathing and sensitivity to pain). Fourteen male lambs of the Ripollesa breed, weighing between 19 and 25 kg were progressively exposed to an atmosphere of 90% CO2 over 66 s. All blood parameters changed between 23 and 43 s after the onset of the immersion. The MLAEP did not decrease significantly until after 48 s exposure to CO2, suggesting an absence of auditory-evoked brain activity. Before that, lambs exhibited head-shaking and sneezing starting at 10.6 (± 0.77) s, and gasping starting at 20.6 (± 1.36) s. After exposure, all animals showed absence of breathing and sensibility to pain, and 36% of them absence of corneal reflex. The pH and pCO2 recovered basal values at 90 and 120 s, respectively, after the end of the exposure. The burst suppression index (BS%) and the A-Line ARX index (AAI) recovered basal levels at 116 and 159 s, respectively. Exposure to CO2 at high concentration induces effective stunning in sheep for a period of 124 s. However, during exposure, the animals exhibited signs of aversion and breathlessness.

The objective of this study was to assess the aversion to exposure of 90% argon, 70% N2/30% CO2 and 85% N2/15% CO2 by volume in atmospheric air in 24 halothane-free slaughter-weight pigs using aversion learning techniques and behavioural studies in an experimental slaughterhouse. Pigs were subjected to the treatments individually during 2 separate trials of 12 animals each. The time of exposure to the gases was 46 and 32 s, respectively. When the pit contained any of the 3 gas mixtures, the time taken to cross the raceway and enter the cradle (TCREC) increased compared with the training sessions (atmospheric air). The incidence of pigs showing retreat and escape attempts and gasps and the number of times that this behaviour was performed was lower in 90% argon than in the gas mixtures with N2 and CO2. On the other hand, the time to loss of posture was lower with 70% N2/30% CO2 than with argon. The second exposure to all gas mixtures was more aversive than the first and the loss of posture also occurred earlier in the second exposure. In conclusion, pigs showed more aversion to gas mixtures with N2 and either 15% or 30% CO2 by volume than 90% argon by volume.

This study was carried out to compare the health of growing pigs in five different production systems in France and Spain using measures provided by the Welfare Quality® protocol. A total of 11,647 pigs housed on 91 commercial farms were evaluated over a two-year period (2007-2009). Farms considered as conventional were close to the European dominant production system, rearing ‘white’ pigs (eg Large White; Landrace * Pietrain) housed on concrete floors. Systems considered as differentiated had specifications to distinguish them from the conventional one. Farms that housed ‘white’ breeds of pigs on straw were then considered as a different production system. Mallorcan Black pigs managed extensively on family farms in the Balearic islands represented a third production system. The remaining two systems assessed were represented by the methods used for Iberian pig rearing extensively or intensively. Multiple Generalised Linear Mixed Models were performed for each animal-based measure of health. The straw-bedded and the conventional systems did not differ in the prevalence of any animal-based measures. Mallorcan Black pigs and Iberian pigs kept extensively had a lower prevalence of severe wounds than pigs in the conventional system and the lowest prevalence of tail biting. Focusing on pigs housed in the conventional system, several possible causal factors (such as the feeding system and the type of floor) were identified relating to severe wounds, tail biting and lameness. Therefore, the recording of simple environmental-based factors can be useful in detecting farms that are more likely to show these problems.

Stunning by inhalation of nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) mixtures reduces aversion compared to high concentrations of CO2 in pigs and poultry. The objective of the study was to assess the aversion to 90% of CO2 (90C) and an alternative gas mixture of 80% N2 and 20% CO2 (80N20C) in commercial rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Sixty animals, divided into two groups, were used. During the first day, the rabbits of both groups were lowered in pairs into the pit with atmospheric air and their behaviour was recorded as control. During the second day, one group was exposed, again in pairs, to 90C and the other to 80N20C for 1 min. Exploratory behaviour and general activity were assessed 2 min before the exposure, during the exposure and for 2 min subsequently. During the exposure, signs of respiratory distress, loss of balance, muscle twitching and recovery of balance were also assessed. In the control sessions (atmospheric air), animals did not show respiratory distress or muscle twitching and were less active while the crate was descending than when gas treatments were applied. The percentage of animals with respiratory distress was higher in 90C (97%) than 80N20C (40%). Muscle twitching occurred earlier in 80N20C (97%; 23.9 s) than in 90C (17%; 37.4 s). A second phase of muscle twitching occurred only in 90C at 93.0 s. Mean latency of lost of balance and recovery were lower in 80N20C (24.2 and 98.6 s, respectively) than in 90C (28.2 and 110.2 s, respectively). It is concluded that rabbits showed less signs of respiratory distress to inhalation of 80N20C than 90C but more signs of aversion than when they were exposed to atmospheric air.

The aim of this study was to assess brain activity in lambs during slaughter without stunning and its correlation with heart rate (HR) and the absence of physiological reflexes. The index of consciousness (IoC-view®) assesses consciousness by an algorithm that analyses the EEG and gives an index from 0 (unconscious) to 100 (conscious). Eight lambs (Merino breed) of 20 to 25 kg live weight were individually restrained in a stretcher and three skin electrodes were placed at the level of the frontal bone. The electrodes were connected to the IoC-view®. Two additional electrodes were placed on the chest and the HR was transferred to a watch monitor. Recording time started 2 min prior to sticking to attain the basal IoC and HR value of each animal. During bleeding, presence of corneal reflex and rhythmic breathing were recorded every 10 s until brain death. Rhythmic breathing disappeared at an average time of 44 (± 4.2) s after sticking, ranging between 30 and 60 s. The corneal reflex disappeared at 116 (± 11.01) s, ranging between 80 and 160 s after sticking. Changes in the brain activity occurred between 22 to 82 s after sticking (52 [± 20.2] s). In five out of six animals the HR increased (177 [± 22.7] beats min−1) compared to basal values (139 [± 8.4] beats min−1) at 115 (± 97.5) s after sticking. Both brain activity and physiological reflexes revealed that when bleeding is performed, through a transverse incision across the neck without stunning, the onset of unconsciousness could last 1 min which impaired animal welfare. This prolonged consciousness compared to other authors’ findings may be attributable to inefficient bleeding when lambs are slaughtered without head restraint.

Morocco and Catalonia are often mentioned as key elements in the crisis of Spanish liberalism, but little attention has been paid to the relation of these conflicts with the global developments of the 1920s. In their effort to break from Spain, Rifi rebels and Catalan separatists resorted to the League of Nations and were supported by sympathisers in British India, the United States, Latin America and Europe. Both separatist attempts utterly failed, but their campaigns provide new insights into the global connections (and dis-connections) of anti-imperialist and sub-national movements during the ‘Wilsonian moment’, and the strategies they developed to project their domestic agendas to the international sphere.