Elemental distributions in a magnetic multilayer system with the structure Si substrate/Ta/NiFe/Ru/CoFeB/Ru/NiFe were studied using atom probe tomography (APT) along different analysis directions. The distributions of Ru and B atoms, which require a high evaporation field, were strongly influenced by the APT analysis direction. In particular, B in the CoFeB layer appeared near the interface with the lower Ru layer when the analysis was anti-parallel to the film growth direction, while B atoms were observed at the other side of the CoFeB layer when the analysis was parallel to the film growth direction. Moreover, when the analysis was perpendicular to the film growth direction, a homogenous distribution of B atoms was found within the CoFeB layer. Owing to this B behavior, the underlying Ru layer was affected in both of these analysis directions. In APT measurements of such a multilayer system composed of a stack of different evaporation field materials, evaluation of the elemental distribution around interfaces should be performed from more than one analysis direction.

Sewall Wright and Gustave Malécot developed important theories of isolation by distance. Wright's theory was statistical and Malécot's probabilistic. Because of this mathematical difference, they were not clear about the relationship between their theories. In this paper, I make two points to clarify this relationship. First, I argue that Wright's theory concerns what I call ecological isolation by distance, whereas Malécot's concerns what I call genetic isolation by distance. Second, I suggest that if Wright's theory is interpreted appropriately, a previously unnoticed connection between the two theories emerges.

Robert MacArthur's mathematical ecology is often regarded as ahistorical and has been criticized by historically oriented ecologists and philosophers for ignoring the importance of history. I clarify and defend his approach, especially his use of simple mathematical models to explain patterns in data and to generate predictions that stimulate empirical research. First I argue that it is misleading to call his approach ahistorical because it is not against historical explanation. Next I distinguish three kinds of criticism of his approach and argue that his approach is compatible with the first two of them. Finally, I argue that the third kind of criticism, advanced by Kim Sterelny and Paul Griffiths, is largely irrelevant to MacArthur's approach.

Solid state bonding of Si3N4 and Ni is considered to be a simple ceramic/metal diffusion bonding as the case of Al2O3/Nb. There are two kinds of bonding interfaces observed by transmission electron microscope(TEM). In addition to the directly bonded interface, an amorphous-like phase was found in some regions of the Si3N4/Ni interface. It is responsible for the degradation of bonding strength. In view of the experimental results, the existence of the amorphous-like phase in bonding interface results from the formation of SiO2 and accumulation of Al2O3 and Y2O3, which were used as sinterfng binders of Si3N4, via intergranular diffusion during the bonding process.

Grain boundaries in as-sintered high-Tc YBa2Cu3O7-x were often found to contain thin amorphous layers up to 2nm in thickness. planar grain boundaries parallel to the c plane of one of the crystals tended to have thick layers, while the other boundaries were with layers of negligible width. The boundary width apparently increased in the specimens sealed in a quartz tube, re-heated at 773K and slowly cooled, even though the chemistry of the boundary layer was preserved except oxygen. Even a thin layer of other compounds was found in the c-plane type boundary when the specimen was re-sintered at above 1200K. These phenomena may be explained by the cracking of the interface and a liquidus valley between YBa2Cu3O7-x. The deterioration of the resistivity characteristics of the specimen is attributed to these changes of the grain boundaries.