Terrestrial molluscs (Mollusca: Gastropoda) are important economic pests worldwide, causing extensive damage to a variety of crop types, and posing a health risk to both humans and wildlife. Current knowledge indicates that there are eight nematode families that associate with molluscs as definitive hosts, including Agfidae, Alaninematidae, Alloionematidae, Angiostomatidae, Cosmocercidae, Diplogastridae, Mermithidae and Rhabditidae. To date, Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Schneider, 1859) Andrássy, 1983 (Rhabditida: Rhabditidae) is the only nematode that has been developed as a biological molluscicide. The nematode, which was commercially released in 1994 by MicroBio Ltd, Littlehampton, UK (formally Becker Underwood, now BASF) under the tradename Nemaslug®, is now sold in 15 different European countries. This paper reviews nematodes isolated from molluscs, with specially detailed information on the life cycle, host range, commercialization, natural distribution, mass production and field application of P. hermaphrodita.

A retrospective study on different Lymnaea glabra samples collected from central France between 1993 and 2010 was carried out to determine the prevalence of natural co-infections with Calicophoron daubneyi and Fasciola hepatica, and to specify the composition of redial burdens. Experimental infections of L. glabra performed during the same period of time were also analysed to study metacercarial production of each digenean in co-infected snails. Controls were naturally or experimentally co-infected Galba truncatula. In natural co-infections, prevalence was 0.7% in L. glabra (186/25,128) and 0.4% in G. truncatula (137/31,345). Low redial burdens were found in these snails, with F. hepatica rediae significantly more numerous in L. glabra than in G. truncatula (7.5 per snail instead of 5.2). In contrast, the total numbers of C. daubneyi rediae in both lymnaeids were close to each other (4.3 and 3.0 rediae, respectively). In experimentally co-infected groups, prevalence was greater in G. truncatula than in the other lymnaeid (6.3% instead of 3.0%). Significantly shorter patent periods and lower metacercarial production for each digenean were noted in L. glabra than in G. truncatula. However, in both lymnaeids, the two types of cercariae were released during the same shedding waves and several peaks during the patent period were synchronous. In spite of a greater shell height for L. glabra, metacercarial production of both digeneans in co-infected snails was lower than that in G. truncatula, thus indicating a still incomplete adaptation between these French L. glabra and both parasites.

The successful use of helminths as therapeutic agents to resolve inflammatory disease was first recorded 40 years ago. Subsequent work in animal models and in humans has demonstrated that the organisms might effectively treat a wide range of inflammatory diseases, including allergies, autoimmune disorders and inflammation-associated neuropsychiatric disorders. However, available information regarding the therapeutic uses and effects of helminths in humans is limited. This study probes the practices and experiences of individuals ‘self-treating’ with helminths through the eyes of their physicians. Five physicians monitoring more than 700 self-treating patients were interviewed. The results strongly support previous indications that helminth therapy can effectively treat a wide range of allergies, autoimmune conditions and neuropsychiatric disorders, such as major depression and anxiety disorders. Approximately 57% of the self-treating patients observed by physicians in the study had autism. Physicians reported that the majority of patients with autism and inflammation-associated co-morbidities responded favourably to therapy with either of the two most popular organisms currently used by self-treaters, Hymenolepis diminuta and Trichuris suis. However, approximately 1% of paediatric patients experienced severe gastrointestinal pains with the use of H. diminuta, although the symptoms were resolved with an anti-helminthic drug. Further, exposure to helminths apparently did not affect the impaired comprehension of social situations that is the hallmark of autism. These observations point toward potential starting points for clinical trials, and provide further support for the importance of such trials and for concerted efforts aimed at probing the potential of helminths, and perhaps other biologicals, for therapeutic use.

This review analyses the scarce available data on biodiversity and transmission of helminths in Arctic coastal ecosystems and the potential impact of climate changes on them. The focus is on the helminths of seabirds, dominant parasites in coastal ecosystems. Their fauna in the Arctic is depauperate because of the lack of suitable intermediate hosts and unfavourable conditions for species with free-living larvae. An increasing proportion of crustaceans in the diet of Arctic seabirds would result in a higher infection intensity of cestodes and acanthocephalans, and may also promote the infection of seabirds with non-specific helminths. In this way, the latter may find favourable conditions for colonization of new hosts. Climate changes may alter the composition of the helminth fauna, their infection levels in hosts and ways of transmission in coastal communities. Immigration of boreal invertebrates and fish into Arctic seas may allow the circulation of helminths using them as intermediate hosts. Changing migratory routes of animals would alter the distribution of their parasites, facilitating, in particular, their trans-Arctic transfer. Prolongation of the seasonal ‘transmission window’ may increase the parasitic load on host populations. Changes in Arctic marine food webs would have an overriding influence on the helminths’ circulation. This process may be influenced by the predicted decreased of salinity in Arctic seas, increased storm activity, coastal erosion, ocean acidification, decline of Arctic ice, etc. Greater parasitological research efforts are needed to assess the influence of factors related to Arctic climate change on the transmission of helminths.

Many helminth taxa have complex life cycles, involving different life stages infecting different host species in a particular order to complete a single generation. Although the broad outlines of these cycles are known for any higher taxon, the details (morphology and biology of juvenile stages, specific identity of intermediate hosts) are generally unknown for particular species. In this review, we first provide quantitative evidence that although new helminth species are described annually at an increasing rate, the parallel effort to elucidate life cycles has become disproportionately smaller over time. We then review the use of morphological matching, experimental infections and genetic matching as approaches to elucidate helminth life cycles. Next we discuss the various research areas or disciplines that could benefit from a solid knowledge of particular life cycles, including integrative taxonomy, the study of parasite evolution, food-web ecology, and the management and control of parasitic diseases. Finally, we end by proposing changes to the requirements for new species descriptions and further large-scale attempts to genetically match adult and juvenile helminth stages in regional faunas, as part of a plea to parasitologists to bring parasite life-cycle studies back into mainstream research.

At the beginning of the new millennium, helminth infections continue to be prevalent, particularly among impoverished populations. This study attempts to create the first health informatics model of helminthiasis in Thailand. The authors investigate how a health informatics model could be used to predict the control and eradication in a national control campaign. Fish-borne helminthiasis caused by Opisthorchis viverrini remains a major public health problem in many parts of South-East Asia, including Thailand, Lao PDR, Vietnam and Cambodia. The epicentre of this disease is located in north-east Thailand, where high prevalence coexists with a high incidence of cholangiocarcinoma (CHCA). The current report was conducted to determine a mathematical model of surveillance for helminthiasis while also using a geographic information system. The fish-borne helminthiasis model or the predicted equation was Y1 = 3.028 + 0.020 (elevation) – 2.098 (clay). For soil-transmitted helminthiasis, the mathematical model or the predicted equation was Y2 = −1.559 + 0.005 (rainfall) + 0.004 (elevation) − 2.198 (clay). The Ministry of Public Health has concluded that mass treatment for helminthiasis in the Thai population, targeting high-risk individuals, may be a cost-effective way to allocate limited funds. This type of approach, as well as further study on the correlation of clinical symptoms with environmental and geographic information, may offer a novel strategy to the helminth crisis.

The current study was conducted to evaluate the nature of association of ABO blood type with helminth infection and related reduction in haemoglobin concentration. Stool samples were collected from 403 school-age children attending Tikur Wuha Elementary School from February to April 2011. Helminth infection was examined using formol-ether concentration and thick Kato–Katz (two slides per stool specimen) techniques. Haemoglobin level was determined using a HemoCue machine and ABO blood type was determined using the antisera haemagglutination test. Nutritional status was assessed using height and weight measurements. Out of 403 children examined, 169, 120, 96 and 18 had blood type O, A, B and AB, respectively. The prevalences of helminth infections were 46.9% for hookworm, 24.6% for Schistosoma mansoni, 4.2% for Ascaris lumbricoides, 1.7% for Trichuris trichiura and 58.3% for any helminth species. The relative odds of infection with at least one helminth species was significantly higher among children with blood type A (adjusted odds ratio (AOR), 2.10; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.28–3.45) or blood type B (AOR, 2.08; 95% CI, 1.22–3.56) as compared to children with blood type O. Among children infected with helminths, mean haemoglobin concentration was lower in those with blood type A than those with blood type O (β, −0.36; 95% CI, −0.72 to −0.01). The relative odds of hookworm infection (AOR, 1.78; 95% CI, 1.08–2.92) and related reduction in haemogobin levels (β, −0.45; 95% CI, −0.84 to −0.04) was higher among children with blood type A as compared to those with blood type O. Although the difference was not significant, the relative odds of S. mansoni or A. lumbricoides infections and related reduction in haemoglobin levels was also higher in children with blood type A or B as compared to children with blood type O. In conclusion, children with blood type A are associated with an increased risk of helminth, particularly hookworm, infection and related reduction in haemoglobin level. The mechanisms by which blood type A makes children susceptible to helminth infection and a related reduction in haemoglobin level ought to be investigated.

A new species, Belondira bagongshanensis n. sp., extracted from soil under grass in Bagongshan Forest Park, Anhui Province, China, is described and illustrated. The new species is mainly characterized by a body length 1.6–2.1 mm; cephalic framework moderately sclerotized; odontostyle robust with a distinct lumen; anterior part of pharynx with a distinct fusiform swelling, bearing distinct sclerotized valve plates and basal expansion occupying about three-fifths of the total neck length; female genital system mono-opisthodelphic and anterior branch 0.8–1.6 times the corresponding body diameter; tail short and hemispheroid; male spicules 36–49 μm long and two widely spaced ventromedian supplements. The new species is close to B. wajahati, B. golden and B. eugeniae in possessing a short tail, a robust odontostyle with a distinct aperture and a moderately sclerotized cephalic framework. New sequences of 18S rDNA and the D2–D3 region of 28S rDNA of the new species were also identified.

Climate oscillations and episodic processes interact with evolution, ecology and biogeography to determine the structure and complex mosaic that is the biosphere. Parasites and parasite–host assemblages are key components in a general explanatory paradigm for global biodiversity. We explore faunal assembly in the context of Quaternary time frames of the past 2.6 million years, a period dominated by episodic shifts in climate. Climate drivers cross a continuum from geological to contemporary timescales and serve to determine the structure and distribution of complex biotas. Cycles within cycles are apparent, with drivers that are layered, multifactorial and complex. These cycles influence the dynamics and duration of shifts in environmental structure on varying temporal and spatial scales. An understanding of the dynamics of high-latitude systems, the history of the Beringian nexus (the intermittent land connection linking Eurasia and North America) and downstream patterns of diversity depend on teasing apart the complexity of biotic assembly and persistence. Although climate oscillations have dominated the Quaternary, contemporary dynamics are driven by tipping points and shifting balances emerging from anthropogenic forces that are disrupting ecological structure. Climate change driven by anthropogenic forcing has supplanted a history of episodic variation and is eliminating ecological barriers and constraints on development and distribution for pathogen transmission. A framework to explore interactions of episodic processes on faunal structure and assembly is the Stockholm Paradigm, which appropriately shifts the focus from cospeciation to complexity and contingency in explanations of diversity.

Diagnosis of intestinal parasites through examination of fresh faecal samples is hampered by its unpleasantness and the urgent need to detect all parasitic forms. In this paper, we compared the standard Kato–Katz (KK) technique with a traditional fixation method, the merthiolate–iodine–formalin (MIF) method. Two hundred and twenty-seven faecal samples from individuals living in a rural setting in Venezuela with high to moderate prevalences of Ascaris lumbricoides (Al), Trichuris trichiura (Tt) and hookworm infections were examined. The ‘gold standard’ used here was derived from the combination of the outcomes from both methods. KK performed better at detecting Tt, and showed higher sensitivity and negative predictive value for both Tt and Al, probably due to a higher capacity of KK to detect low parasite loads. Both methods showed an almost perfect agreement using the Kappa index. MIF provided a higher median of parasitic loads for low and total egg counts for the three helminths. Differentiating fertile from infertile eggs of Al did not affect the results; infertile eggs were present only at low and intermediate parasitic loads, but absent at high loads. KK was not able to detect high loads of any of the helminths. MIF allowed for the detection of other helminths, such as Strongyloides stercoralis, and protozoan infections, for which KK is not specific. In conclusion, MIF is a simple and inexpensive technique that performs competitively with KK in both laboratory and field work on intestinal helminths, particularly in resource-limited settings.

Fasciolosis caused by Fasciola hepatica severely affects the efficiency of livestock production systems worldwide. In addition to the economic impact inflicted on livestock farmers, fasciolosis is an emergent zoonosis. This review emphasizes different aspects of the disease in South America. Available data on epidemiology in bovines and ovines in different countries, as well as a growing body of information on other domestic and wildlife definitive hosts, are summarized. The issue of drug resistance that compromises the long-term sustainability of current pharmacological strategies is examined from a regional perspective. Finally, efforts to develop a single-antigen recombinant vaccine in ruminants are reviewed, focusing on the cases of leucine aminopeptidase or thioredoxin glutathione reductase.

Temperature is a key factor influencing the rate of biological processes of ectothermic animals and is intrinsically linked to climate change. Trematode parasites may be potentially susceptible to temperature changes and, in order to develop a predictive framework of their response to climate change, large-scale analyses are needed. In particular, the biology of the egg of all species is at some time influenced by environmental conditions. The present study uses Arrhenius activation energy (E*), a common measure of temperature-mediated reaction rates, to analyse experimental data from the scientific literature on the effects of temperature on the production, development and hatching of trematode eggs. Egg production declines at high temperatures, with habitat-specific climatic factors determining the optimal thermal range. Egg development, as is typical of invertebrates, shows a simple response to temperature, with minimal differences between mid- (35–60°) and low-latitude (<35°) species. Egg hatching demonstrates variable thermodynamics with high E* values at low temperature ranges and thermostability at mid-temperatures, before declining at high temperature ranges, with wide thermostable zones being a common feature. Comparisons between development and hatching indicate that these two parameters demonstrate different thermodynamical responses. The significance of these results in furthering our understanding of trematode egg biology under natural conditions is discussed.

Hookworm infection stands out for its worldwide distribution and for its veterinary and public health relevance. Based on copromicroscopic examinations and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 region, we assessed, respectively, the prevalence of intestinal parasites and the identification of canine hookworm species in faeces recovered from 278 dogs living in households of an inland municipality of São Paulo State, Brazil. Intestinal parasites were found in 67.3% of dogs and hookworm infection was found at the highest prevalence rate (56.6%), followed by Toxocara canis (11.9%), Isospora spp. (11.9%), Giardia spp. (5.8%), Sarcocystis spp. (4.0%), ‘Hammondia-like’ (1.4%), Dipylidium caninum (1.1%) and Trichuris vulpis (0.7%). Of 158 samples positive for hookworm eggs, 106 (67.1%) were amplified by PCR and, of those, 88 (55.7%) were successfully sequenced for species identification. Single infections with Ancylostoma caninum and Ancylostoma braziliense were recorded in 61.4% and 12.5%, respectively, and mixed infections were found in 26.1%. The nucleotide sequences of both species showed high identity rates (98–100%) when compared with reference sequences. Although A. caninum was the most prevalent hookworm in the dogs assessed, the occurrence of both A. caninum and A. braziliense in single and/or mixed infections poses a potential risk for the local population in a low-income area, especially children, to acquire cutaneous larva migrans (CLM).

Latin America has tripled production by aquaculture up to 78 million tonnes in the past 20 years. However, one of the problems that aquaculture is facing is the presence of helminth parasites and the diseases caused by them in the region. In this review we have collected all the available information on helminths affecting commercial aquaculture in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), emphasizing those causing serious economic losses. Monogeneans are by far the most common and aggressive parasites affecting farmed fish in LAC. They have been recognized as serious pathogens in intensive fish culture because they reach high levels of infection rapidly, and can infect other phylogenetically related fish species. The next most important group comprises the larval stages of digeneans (metacercariae) such as Diplostomum sp. and Centrocestus formosanus, which cause serious damage to farmed fish. Since LAC aquaculture has been based mainly on exotic species (tilapia, salmon, trout and carp), most of their parasites have been brought into the region together with the fish for aquaculture. Recently, one of us (A.I.P.-T.) has suggested that monogeneans, which have generally been considered to be harmless, can produce serious effects on the growth of cultured Nile tilapia. Therefore, the introduction of fish together with their ‘harmless’ parasites into new sites, regions or countries in LAC should be considered a breakdown of biosecurity in those countries involved. Therefore, the application of quarantine procedures and preventive therapeutic treatments should be considered before allowing these introductions into a country.

Toxoplasmosis causes complications during pregnancy that have serious effects on fetal development. Thus far, toxocariasis has been reported to spread only via vertical transmission. Nonetheless, the population of pregnant women is also exposed to this infection. Co-infection with both Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. has been reported in children, but there are no reports of co-infection in the population of pregnant women. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of co-infection with T. gondii and Toxocara spp. in pregnant women at a university hospital in southern Brazil, and to identify the risk factors associated with infection by both parasites. Two hundred pregnant women were tested for the presence of anti-T. gondii and anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies and were asked to complete an epidemiological questionnaire. In this study, the co-infection rate observed in the total population of pregnant women was 8%. In addition, women with a positive result for a serology test for Toxocara spp. were at increased risk of infection by T. gondii (P = 0.019). Co-infection with both parasites in pregnant women was associated with low birth weights in neonates. The similar modes of transmission of both parasites could explain the co-infection. Only a few previous studies have investigated this phenomenon. The findings of the present study emphasize the importance of serological diagnosis during prenatal care and further research in this area to identify risk factors associated with this co-infection, and the possible implications of this co-infection during pregnancy and on the health of newborns.

Two groups of six Haemonchus contortus infected Saint Croix lambs each received different diets for 11 weeks: control group, commercial food, molasses and lucerne hay; and treated group, nutritional pellets (NPs) containing Duddingtonia flagrans at 2 × 106 chlamydospores/kg body weight (BW), sorghum and lucerne hay. Mean BW gain (BWG), body condition score (BCS) and packed cell volume (PCV) and also eggs/g of faeces (EPG) and recovered L3 were compared using a repeated measures across time model. Groups had similar BWG (control 139.7 ± 0.035 g/day and treated 167.7 ± 0.041 g/day), BCS (control 3.6 ± 0.39 and treated 3.4 ± 0.46) and PCV (control 32.5 ± 1.68% and treated 30.0 ± 1.68%). The mean EPG of the control group was 1215 ± 1040 and in the treated group it was 2097.91 ± 2050. No reduction in larval population was observed during weeks 2 and 3. The greatest larval population reduction in the faeces of treated lambs was observed during the first week (70.5%) and from weeks 6 to 11, with a mean value close to 70% (P < 0.05). In general, both experimental groups showed a similar feed conversion. It was concluded that both diets resulted in similar lamb growth, PCV, BCS and H. contortus EPG. However, NP consumption significantly reduced the H. contortus L3 population in lamb faeces.

This review provides an inventory of the biodiversity of the anisakid species identified so far from fish and marine mammals of the NE Atlantic Ocean. The paper reviews and discusses various taxonomical and epidemiological aspects related to biodiversity assessment, with emphasis on: (1) taxa recognized as ‘biological species’ based on molecular/genetic markers; (2) current molecular/genetic approaches to identify the species at different developmental stages; (3) ecological data related to the actual geographical distribution and definitive host preferences of the species; (4) their distribution in various, commercially important fish species in northern European waters; (5) their possible occurrence in farmed fish; and, finally, (6) an update of their zoonotic potential as causative agents of anisakidosis in humans.

Knowledge of trematode infections in Biomphalaria pfeifferi from south-eastern Nigeria is scarce, due to the absence of Schistosoma mansoni infection in the region. Therefore, the present study sought to describe trematode infections in B. pfeifferi from the River Uzuru in the Nigeria Cement Factory area, Nkalagu, south-eastern Nigeria. Four hundred and sixty snails were checked for trematode infections, and mice were exposed to the Schistosoma cercariae shed from the snails. Adult worms were harvested from the mice 13 weeks post-infection, while sections of the liver and spleen were examined. Primary school children living in the area were screened for S. mansoni infection and assessed for activities involving water contact. The edges of the river were also searched for burrows and rodents. The five cercaria morphotypes found were armatae xiphidiocercariae, echinocercariae, Schistosoma cercariae, cystophorous cercariae and cercariaeum cercariae. The overall prevalence and mean intensity of trematode infections were 39.78% and 195.46, with the prevalence and mean intensity of most cercaria morphotypes higher in the hot–dry than in the cool–dry season. The infected mice showed S. mansoni-like characteristics but the stool samples of the schoolchildren were negative for S. mansoni eggs. Water-contact activities in the River Uzuru were minimal. Burrows were seen at the river edges but no Schistosoma eggs were recovered from captured rats. This is the first report of Schistosoma cercariae and other cercaria morphotypes in B. pfeifferi from south-eastern Nigeria. Additional molecular investigations are needed to identify correctly these Schistosoma cercariae, due to their public health implication.

A new species of entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema pwaniensis n. sp., belonging to the glaseri group, is described from Tanzania. The infective juveniles of S. pwaniensis n. sp. are characterized by a body length of 978 μm (808–1131), distance from anterior end to excretory pore of 86 μm (80–95) and a tail length of 87 μm (75–95). The ratios a, c and E% of S. pwaniensis n. sp. are substantially lower than those of all other African ‘glaseri’ group members. The first-generation males of S. pwaniensis n. sp. can be distinguished by a large spicule length of 92 μm (80–97) and by the absence of the caudal mucron, while second-generation males possess a short spine-like mucron. First-generation females have a peg-like tail tip bearing three spine-like projections. Second-generation females can be recognized by a slightly protruding vulva and well-developed post-anal swelling. The new species is further characterized by sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and partial 28S regions of the ribosomal DNA. Phylogenetic analyses show that S. pwaniensis n. sp. forms a strongly supported monophyletic clade with two other East African species, S. ethiopiense and S. karii.