Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-9pm4c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-29T02:21:58.716Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Basic anatomy and pathology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 May 2015

Louis R. Caplan
Get access

Summary

A summary is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Vertebrobasilar Ischemia and Hemorrhage
Clinical Findings, Diagnosis and Management of Posterior Circulation Disease
 , pp. 29 - 73
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2015

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Afifi, A, Bergmann, RA. Basic neuroscience, a structural and functional approach. 2nd edition. Urban and Schwarzenberg, Baltimore, 1986.Google Scholar
2.Crosby, EC, Humphrey, T, Lauer, EW. Correlative anatomy of the nervous system, The Macmillan Co, New York, 1962.Google Scholar
3.Gilman, S, Newman, SW. Manter and Gatz’s essentials of clinical neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, 10th edition, F.A. Davis, Philadelphia, 2003.Google Scholar
4.Mancall, EL, Brock, DG. Gray’s clinical neuroanatomy: the anatomic basis for clinical neuroscience, Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2010Google Scholar
5.Urban, PP, Caplan, LR. Brainstem disorders. Springer, Berlin, 2011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6.Brodal, A. Neurological anatomy in relation to clinical medicine, Oxford University Press, New York, 1981.Google Scholar
7.Brodal, A. The cranial nerves. anatomy and anatomico-clinical correlation, 2nd edition, Blackwell, Oxford, 1965.Google Scholar
8.Olszewski, J, Baxter, D. Cytoarchitectonics of the human brainstem. S. Karger, New York, 1954.Google Scholar
9.DeArmond, SJ, Fusco, MM, Dewey, M. Structure of the Human brain, a photographic atlas, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1976.Google Scholar
10.Brazis, PW, Masdeu, JC, Biller, J. Localization in clinical neurology, 6th edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, New York, 2006.Google Scholar
11.Warner, JJ. Atlas of neuroanatomy. Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, 2001.Google Scholar
12.Tatemichi, TK, Steinke, W, Duncan, C et al. Paramedian thalamopeduncular infarction: clinical syndromes and magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Neurol 1992;32:162–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Castaigne, P, Lhermitte, F, Buge, A et al. Paramedian thalamic and midbrain infarcts: clinical and neuropathological study. Ann Neurol 1981;10:127–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Graf-Radford, NR, Damasio, H, Yamada, T, Eslinger, PJ, Damasio, AR. Non-haemorrhagic thalamic infarction. Brain 1985;108:485–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15.Carrera, E, Michel, P, Bogousslavsky, J. Anteromedian, central, and posterolateral infarcts of the thalamus: three variant types. Stroke 2004;35:2826–2831.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Gilman, S, Bloedel, JR, Lechtenberg, R. Diseases of the cerebellum. F.A. Davis, Philadelphia, 1981.Google Scholar
17.Schmahmann, JD. An emerging concept; the cerebellar contribution to higher function. Arch Neurol 1991;48:1178–1187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18.Schmahmann, JD, Pandya, DN. Fiber pathways of the brain, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Goss, CM (ed.). Anatomy of the human body by Henry Gray, 29th American edition, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1973.Google Scholar
20.Daseler, EH, Anson, BJ. Surgical anatomy of the subclavian artery and its branches. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1959;108:149–174.Google ScholarPubMed
21.Putz, R, Pabst, R. (eds.) Sobotta atlas of human anatomy, 14th edition, Urban & Fischer/Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2009.Google Scholar
22.Berguer, R, Kieffer, E. Surgery of the arteries to the head. Springer, New York, 1992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23.Newton, TH, Mani, RL. The vertebral artery. In Newton, TH, Potts, DG (eds.), Radiology of the skull and brain, Vol. 2, Book 2, Angiography. MediBooks, Great Neck, NY, 1974, pp. 1659–1709.Google Scholar
24.Adachi, B. Das arteriensystem der Japaner, Kaiserlich-Japanischen Universitat zu Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan, 1928.Google Scholar
25.Lie, TA. Congenital malformations of the carotid and vertebral arterial systems, including persistent anastomoses. In Vinken, PJ, Bruyn, GW (eds.), Handbook of clinical neurology, Vol. 12, Vascular diseases of the nervous system, Part II. North Holland, Amsterdam, 1972, pp. 289–339.Google Scholar
26.Tobin, WO, Killeen, R, Kinsella, JA McCabe, DJH. Dual origin of the left vertebral artery: extracranial MRA and CTA findings. J Neurol Sci 2010;298:150–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27Takahashi, M. The basilar artery. In Newton, TH, Potts, DG (eds.), Radiology of the skull and brain, Vol. 2, Book 2, Angiography. MediBooks, Great Neck, NY, 1974, pp. 1775–1795.Google Scholar
28.Margolis, MT, Newton, TH, Hoyt, WF. The posterior cerebral artery. section II. Gross and roentgenographic anatomy. In Newton, TH, Potts, DG (eds.), Radiology of the skull and brain, Vol 2, Book 2, Angiography. MediBooks, Great Neck, NY, 1974, pp. 1551–1579.Google Scholar
29.Stephens, RB, Stilwell, DL. Arteries and veins of the human brain. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield IL, 1969.Google Scholar
30.Krayenbuhl, H, Yasargil, MG. Die vaskularen erkrangungen im gebiet der arteria vertebralis und arteria basialis; eine anatomische und pathologische, klinische und neuroradiologische studie, Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1957.Google Scholar
31.Stopford, JB. The arteries of the pons and medulla oblongata. J Anat 1916; 50:130–164.Google ScholarPubMed
32.Duvernoy, HM. Human brainstem vessels, 2nd edition, Springer, Berlin, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
33.Tatu, L, Moulin, T, Bogousslavsky, J, Duvernoy, H. Arterial territories of human brain: brainstem and cerebellum. Neurology 1996;47:1125–1135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34Tatu, L, Moulin, T, Vuillier, F, Bogousslavsky, J. Arterial territories of the human brain. In Caplan, LT, van Gijn, J (eds.), Stroke syndromes, 3rd edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012, pp. 329–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Tatu, L, Moulin, T, Bogousslavsky, J, Duvernoy, H. Arterial territories of the human brain: cerebral hemispheres. Neurology 1998;50:1699–1708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Caplan, LR. Vascular supply and territories of the cerebellum. In Manto, M, Gruol, DL, Schmahmann, JD, Koibuchi, N, Rossi, F (eds.), Handbook of the cerebellum and cerebellar disorders, Springer, New York, 2013, pp. 341–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Amarenco, P. Hauww, JJ. Anatomie des arteres cerebelleuses. Rev Neurol 1989;145:267–276.Google Scholar
38.Amarenco, P, Hauw, JJ, Caplan, LR. Cerebellar infarctions. In Lechtenberg, R. (ed.), Handbook of Cerebellar Diseases, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1993, pp. 251–290.Google Scholar
39.Amarenco, P, Roullet, E, Hommel, M, Chaine, P. Marteau, R. Infarction in the medial branch of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990;53:731–735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Busch, W. Beitrag zur Morphologie und pathologie der arteria basalis (Untersuchungsergebnisse bei 1000 Gehirnen) Arch Psychiatr Nernenkr 1966;208:326–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Amarenco, P, Hauw, J-J. Cerebellar infarction in the territory of the anterior and inferior cerebellar artery. Brain 1990;113:139–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
42.Amarenco, P, Roulet, E, Goujon, C et al. Infarction of the anterior rostral cerebellum. Neurology 1991;41:253–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43.Luh, GY, Dean, BL, Tomsick, TA, Wallace, RC. The persistent fetal carotid-vertebrobasilar anastomoses. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;172:1427–1432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Chen, Y-C, Li, M-H, Chen, S-W, Hu, D-J, Qiao, R-H. Incidental findings of persistent trigeminal artery on 3-dimensional time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography at 3.0 T; an analysis of 25 cases. J Neuroimaging 2011;21:152–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
45.Siquera, M, Piske, R, Marino, R. Cerebellar arteries originating from the internal carotid artery. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1993;14:1229–1235.Google Scholar
46.Haughton, VM, Rosenbaum, AE, Pearce, J. Internal carotid artery origin of the inferior cerebellar arteries. AJR 1978;130:1191–1192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Hoyt, WF, Newton, TH, Margolis, MT. The posterior cerebral artery. section I. Embryology and developmental anomalies. In Newton, TH, Potts, DG (eds.), Radiology of the skull and brain, Vol. 2, Book 2, Angiography. MediBooks, Great Neck, NY, 1974, pp. 1540–1550.Google Scholar
48.Chaves, C, Caplan, LR. Posterior cerebral arteries. In Caplan, LR, van Gynn, J (eds.), Stroke syndromes, 3rd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 405–418.Google Scholar
49.Caplan, LR, Amarenco, P, Rosengart, A et al. Embolism from vertebral artery origin occlusive disease. Neurology 1992; 42:1505–1512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50.Caplan, LR. Posterior circulation ischemia: then, now, and tomorrow. The Thomas Willis Lecture – 2000. Stroke 2000;31:2011–2023.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
51.Glass, TA, Hennessey, PM, Pazdera, L et al. Outcome at 30 days in the New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. Arch Neurol 2002;59:369–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Caplan, LR, Wityk, RJ, Glass, TA et al. New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. Ann Neurol 2004;56:389–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
53.Huang, YP, Wolf, BS. Veins of the posterior fossa.In Newton, TH, Potts, DG (eds.), Radiology of the skull and brain, Vol. 2, Book 3, Angiography. C.V. Mosby, St. Louis, 1974, pp. 2155–2219.Google Scholar
54.Kiliç, T, Akakin, A. Anatomy of cerebral veins and sinuses. In Caso, V, Agnelli, G, Paciaroni, M (eds.), Handbook on cerebral venous thrombosis. Karger, Basel, 2008, pp. 4–15.Google Scholar
55.Wolpert, SM. Angiography of posterior fossa tumors. Grune and Stratton, New York, 1976.Google Scholar
56.Stary, HC. Evolution and progression of atherosclerotic lesions in coronary arteries of children and young adults. Arteriosclerosis 1989;99 (Suppl I):I19–I32.Google Scholar
57.Ross, R.,The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis-an update. N Engl J Med 1986;314:488–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Moosy, J.,Morphology, sites, and epidemiology of cerebral atherosclerosis in research publications. Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis; 1966; 51: 1–22.Google Scholar
59.Hennerici, M, Sitzer, G, Weger, H-D. Carotid artery plaques. Karger, Basel, 1987.Google Scholar
60.Ogata, J, Masuda, J, Yutani, C, Yamaguchi, T. Rupture of the atheromatous plaque as a cause of thrombotic occlusion of stenotic internal carotid artery. Stroke 1990;21:1740–1745.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Ogata, J, Masuda, J, Yutani, C, Yamaguchi, T., Mechanisms of cerebral artery thrombosis: histopathological analysis on eight necropsy cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57:17–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Ogata, J, Yutani, C, Otsubo, R et al. Heart and vessel pathology underlying brain infarction in 142 stroke patients. Ann Neurol. 2008;63:770–781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
63.Deykin, D.,Thrombogenesis. N Engl J Med 1967;276:622–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Fuster, V, Badimon, L, Badimon, J, Chesebro, JH. The pathogenesis of coronary artery disease and the acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 1992;326:242–250.Google ScholarPubMed
65.Caplan, LR, Hennerici, M. Impaired clearance of emboli (washout) is an important link between hypoperfusion, embolism, and ischemic stroke. Arch Neurol 1998;55:1475–1482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66.Caplan, LR, Wong, KS, Gao, S, Hennerici, MG. Is hypoperfusion an important cause of strokes? If so, how? Cerebrovasc Dis 2006;21:145–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67.Schmid-Schonbein, H, Perktold, K., Physical factors in the pathogenesis of atheroma formation. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Brain ischemia: from basic science to treatment. Springer, London, 1994, pp. 185–213.Google Scholar
68.Fisher, CM, Gore, I, Okabe, N, White, PD. Atherosclerosis of the carotid and vertebral arteries-extracranial and intracranial. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1965;24:455–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
69.Schwartz, CJ, Mitchell, RA. Atheroma of the carotid and vertebral arterial systems. Brit Med J 1961;2:1057–1063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.Whisnant, JP, Martin, MJ, Sayre, GP. Atherosclerotic stenosis of cervical arteries. Arch Neurol 1961;5:429–432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
71.Martin, MJ, Whisnant, JP, Sayre, GP. Occlusive vascular disease in the extracranial cerebral circulation. Arch Neurol 1960;3:530–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72.Hutchinson, EC, Yates, PO. The cervical portion of the vertebral artery, a clinico-pathological study. Brain 1956;79:319–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
73.Castaigne, P, Lhermitte, F, Gautier, JC et al. Arterial occlusions in the vertebral-basilar system. A study of 44 patients with post-mortem data. Brain 1973;96:133–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
74.Mazighi, M, Labreuche, J, Gongora-Rivera, F et al. Autopsy prevalence of proximal extracranial atherosclerosis in patients with fatal stroke. Stroke 2009;40:713–718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75.Mazighi, M, Labreuche, J, Gongora-Rivera, F et al. Autopsy prevalence of intracranial atherosclerosis in patients with fatal stroke. Stroke 2008;39:1142–1147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76.Meyer, JS, Sheehan, S, Bauer, RB. An arteriographic study of cerebrovascular disease in man. I Stenosis and occlusion of the vertebral-basilar arterial system. Arch Neurol 1960;2:27–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77.Bauer, RB, Sheehan, S, Wechsler, N, Meyer, JS. Arteriographic study of the sites, incidence, and treatment of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular lesions. Neurology 1962;12:698–711.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
78.Hass, WK, Fields, WS, North, RR et al. Joint study of extracranial arterial occlusion II. Arteriography: techniques, sites, and complications. JAMA 1968;203:961–968.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79.Hennerici, M, Aulich, A, Sandmann, W, Freund, H. Incidence of asymptomatic extracranial arterial disease. Stroke 1981;12:750–758.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80.Hennerici, M, Klemm, C, Rautenberg, W. The subclavian steal phenomenon: a common vascular disorder with rare neurological deficits, Neurology 1988;38:669–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
81.Bartels, E. Color-coded duplex ultrasonography of the cerebral vessels. Atlas and manual. F.K. Schattauer Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1999.Google Scholar
82.Von Reutern, G-M, Kaps, M, von Büdingen, HJ. Ultraschlldiagnostik der hirnversorgenden Arterien, Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 2000.Google Scholar
83.Forteza, A, Krejza, Koch S, Babikian, VL. Ultrasound imaging of cerebrovascular disease. In Babikian, V, Wechsler, LR, Higashida, RT (eds.), Imaging cerebrovascular disease. Butterworth Heinemann, Philadelphia, 2003, pp. 3–35.Google Scholar
84.Amarenco, P, Duyckaerts, C, Tzourio, C et al. The prevalence of ulcerated plaques in the aortic arch in patients with stroke. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:221–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.Stehbens, WE. Pathology of the cerebral blood vessels. C.V. Mosby, St. Louis, 1972.Google Scholar
86.Labadzhyan, A, Csiba, L, Narula, N et al. Histopathological evaluation of basilar artery atherosclerosis. J Neurol Sci 2011;307:97–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
87.Caplan, LR, Gorelick, PB, Hier, DB. Race, sex, and occlusive cerebrovascular disease: a review. Stroke 1986; 17: 648–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.Gorelick, PB, Caplan, LR, Hier, DB et al. Racial differences in the distribution of posterior circulation occlusive disease. Stroke 1985;16:785–790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
89.Gorelick, PB. Distribution of atherosclerotic cerebrovascular lesions. Effects of age, race, and sex. Stroke 1993;24:116–119. Discussion 120–121.Google ScholarPubMed
90.Leung, SY, Ng, TH, Yuen, ST, Lauder, IJ, Ho, FC. Pattern of cerebral atherosclerosis in Hong Kong Chinese. Severity in intracranial and extracranial vessels. Stroke 1993;24:779–786.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91.Feldmann, E, Daneault, N, Kwan, E et al. Chinese-white differences in the distribution of occlusive cerebrovascular disease. Neurology 1990;40:1541–1545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92.Lee, JH, Han, SJ, Yun, YH et al. Posterior circulation ischemic stroke in Korean population. Eur J Neurol 2006;13:742–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
93.Gorelick, PB, Han, SJ, Wong, KS. Epidemiology. In Kim, JS, Caplan, LR, Wong, KS (eds.), Intracranial atherosclerosis. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, 2008, pp. 33–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
94.Caplan, LR. Penetrating artery disease. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Caplan’s stroke, a clinical approach, 4th edition. Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2008, pp. 291–315.Google Scholar
95.Fisher, CM. The arterial lesions underlying lacunes. Acta Neuropathol 1969;12:1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
96.Fisher, CM. Cerebral miliary aneurysms in hypertension. Am J Pathol 1972;66:313–324.Google ScholarPubMed
97.Rosenblum, WJ. Miliary aneurysms and “fibrinoid” degeneration of cerebral blood vessels. Hum Pathol 1977;8:133–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98.Fisher, CM. Bilateral occlusion of basilar artery branches. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977;40:1182–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99.Caplan, LR. Intracranial branch atheromatous disease: a neglected, understudied, and underused concept. Neurology 1989;39:1246–1250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
100.Ostrow, PT, Miller, LL. Pathology of small artery disease. In Pullicino, PM, Caplan, LR, Hommel, M (eds.), Cerebral small artery disease. Raven Press, New York, 1993, pp. 93–123.Google Scholar
101.Klein, IF, Lavallee, PC, Schouman-Claeys, E, Amaraenco, P. High-resolution MRI identifies basilar artery plaques in paramedian pontine infarct. Neurology 2005;64:551–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
102.Caplan, LR. Dissections of brain-supplying arteries. Nat Clin Pract Neurology 2008;4:34–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103.Schievink, W. Dissections of the carotid and vertebral arteries. N Engl J Med 2001;344: 898–906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104.Caplan, LR, Gonzalez, RG, Buonanno, FS. Case 18-2012: A 35-year-old man with neck pain, hoarseness, and dysphagia. N Engl J M 2012;366:2306–2313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.Arnold, M, Bousser, MG. Clinical manifestations of vertebral artery dissection. In Baumgartner, RW, Bogousslavsky, J, Caso, V, Paciaroni, M (eds.), Handbook on cerebral artery dissection. Karger, Basel, 2005, pp. 77–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
106.Caplan, LR, Zarins, CK, Hemmati, M. Spontaneous dissection of the extracranial vertebral arteries. Stroke 1985;16:1030–1038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107.Chiras, J, Marciano, S, Vega Molina, J et al. Spontaneous dissecting aneurysm of the extracranial vertebral artery (20 cases). Neuroradiology 1985;27:327–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
108.Mas, JL, Bousser, M-G, Hasboun, D, Laplane, D. Extracranial vertebral artery dissection. A review of 13 cases. Stroke 1987;18:1037–1047.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
109.Arnold, M, Sturznegger, M. Cervico-cephalic arterial dissections. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 433–453.Google Scholar
110.Caplan, LR, Baquis, GD, Pessin, MS et al. Dissection of the intracranial vertebral artery. Neurology 1988;38:868–877.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
111.Berger, MS, Wilson, CB. Intracranial dissecting aneurysms of the posterior circulation. J Neurosurg 1984;61:882–894.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
112.Estol, CJ, Caplan, LR. Intracranial arterial dissections. In Caplan, LR, Von, Gijn (eds.), Stroke syndromes, 3rd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 566–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
113.Berkovic, SF et al. Basilar artery dissection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983; 46:126–129CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
114.Alexander, CB et al. Dissecting aneurysms of the basilar artery in 2 patients. Stroke 1979;10: 294–299CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115.Bugiani, O et al. Nontraumatic dissecting aneurysm of the basilar artery. Eur Neurol 1983;22:256–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116.Caplan, LR, Estol, CJ, Massaro, AR. Dissection of the posterior cerebral arteries. Arch Neurol 2005;62:1138–1143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117.Caplan, LR, Wityk, RJ, Glass, TA et al. New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. Ann Neurol 2004; 56:389–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
118.Caplan, LR, Wityk, RJ, Pazdera, L et al. New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Stroke Registry: II. Vascular lesions. J Clin Neurol 2005;1:31–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
119.Glass, TA, Hennessey, PM, Pazdera, L et al. Outcome at 30 days in the New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. Arch Neurol 2002;59:369–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
120.Dawson, DA, Fischer, EG. Neurologic complications of cardiac catheterization. Neurology 1977;27:496–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
121.Keilson, GR, Schwartz, WJ, Recht, LD. The preponderance of posterior circulation circulatory events is independent of the route of cardiac catheterization. Stroke 1992;23:1358–1359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
122.Venketasubramanian, N, Sacco, RL, Di Tullio, M et al. Vascular distribution of cerebral emboli by transcranial Doppler. Neurology 1993;43:1533–1535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123.Pessin, MS, Daneault, N, Kwan, E, Eisengart, M, Caplan, LR. Local embolism from vertebral artery occlusion. Stroke 1988;19:112–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
124.Caplan, LR, Amarenco, P, Rosengart, A et al. Embolism from vertebral artery origin occlusive disease. Neurology 1992;42:1505–1512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
125.Koroshetz, WJ, Ropper, AH. Artery-to-artery embolism causing stroke in the posterior circulation. Neurology 1987;37:292–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
126.Caplan, LR, Amarenco, P, Rosengart, A et al. Embolism from vertebral artery origin occlusive disease. Neurology 1992;42:1505–1512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
127.Wityk, RJ, Chang, H-M, Rosengart, A et al. Proximal extracranial vertebral artery disease in the New England Medical Center Posterior Circulation Registry. Arch Neurol 1998; 55:470–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
128.Pelouze, GA. Plaque ulcere de l’ostium de l’artere vertebrale. Rev Neurol 1989;145:478–481.Google Scholar
129.Tettenborn, B, Caplan, LR, Sloan, MA et al. Postoperative brainstem and cerebellar infarcts. Neurology 1993;43:471–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
130.Fisher, CM. Basilar artery embolism after surgery under general anesthesia: a case report. Neurology 1993;43:1856–1857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
131.Lou, M, Caplan, LR. Vertebro-basilar dilatative arteriopathy (dolichoectasia). Ann NY Acad Sci 2010;1184:121–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
132.Pico, F., Labreuche, J, Touboul, P.J, Amarenco, P. Intracranial arterial dolichoectasia and its association with carotid atherosclerosis and stroke subtype. Neurology 2003;61:1736–1742.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
133.Caplan, LR. Dilatative arteriopathy (dolichoectasia): what is known and not known. Ann Neurol 2005;57:469–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
134.Pico, F, Labreuche, J, Seilhean, D et al. Association of small-vessel disease with dilatative arteriopathy of the brain: neuropathologic evidence. Stroke 2007;38: 1197–1202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
135.Schwartz, A, Rautenberg, W, Hennerici, M. Dolichoectatic intracranial arteries: review of selected aspects. Cerebrovasc Dis 1993;3:273–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
136.Pessin, MS, Chimowitz, MI, Levine, SR et al. Stroke in patients with fusiform vertebrobasilar aneurysms. Neurology 1989;39:16–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
137.DeGeorgia, M, Belden, J, Pao, L et al. Thrombus in vertebrobasilar dolichoectatic artery treated with intravenous urokinase. Cerebrovasc Dis 1999;9:28–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
138.Bogousslavsky, J, Regli, F, Maeder, P, Meuli, R, Nader, J. The etiology of posterior circulation infarcts. Neurology 1993;43:1528–1533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
139.Caplan, LR. Fibromuscular dysplasia. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 491–495.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
140.Slovut, DP, Olin, JW. Fibromuscular dysplasia. N Engl J Med 2004; 350:1862–1871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141.So, EL, Toole, JF, Dalal, P et al. Cephalic fibromuscular dysplasia in 32 patients. Arch Neurol 1981;38:619–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
142.Corrin, LS, Sandok, BA, Houser, OW. Cerebral ischemic events in patients with carotid artery fibromuscular dysplasia. Arch Neurol 1981;38:616–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
143.Mettinger, KL. Ericson, K. Fibromuscular dysplasia and the brain. Stroke 1982;13:46–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
144.Bragin, MA, Cherkasov, AP. Morphogenesis of fibromuscular dysplasia of the renal arteries. An ultrastructural study. Arch Pathol 1979;41:46–52.Google ScholarPubMed
145.Luscher, TF, Lie, JT, Stanson, AW et al. Arterial fibromuscular dysplasia. Mayo Clin Proc 1987;62:931–952.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
146.Weir, B. Aneurysms affecting the nervous system. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1987.Google Scholar
147.Mettinger, KL, Ericson, K. Fibromuscular dysplasia and the brain. Stroke 1982;13:46–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
148.Mettinger, KL. Fibromuscular dysplasia and the brain II. Current concepts of the disease. Stroke 1982;13:53–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
149.Pakarinen, S. Incidence, etiology, and prognosis of primary subarachnoid hemorrhage: a study based on 589 cases diagnosed in a defined urban population during a defined period. Acta Neurol Scand 1967;43(suppl 29):1–128.Google Scholar
150.Phillips, LH, Whisnant, JP, O’Fallon, W, Sundt, TM. The unchanging pattern of subarachnoid hemorrhage in a community. Neurology 1980;30:1034–1040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
151.Mayberg, MR, Batjer, HH, Dacey, R et al. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Heart Association. Stroke. 1994;25:2315–2328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
152.Kaibara, T, Heros, RC. Aneurysms. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 171–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
153.Stehbens, WE. Pathology of the cerebral blood vessels, C.V. Mosby, St. Louis, 1972.Google Scholar
154.Bor, ASE, Velthuis, BK, Majoie, CB, Rinkel, GJE. Configuration of intracranial arteries and development of aneurysms. Neurology 2008;70:700–705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
155.The International Study of Unruptured Intracranial Aneurysms Investigators. Unruptured intracranial aneurysms-risk of rupture and risks of surgical intervention. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1725–1733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
156.Bromberg, JE, Rinkel, GJ, Algra, A et al. Familial subarachnoid hemorrhage: distinctive features and patterns of inheritance. Ann Neurol 1995;38:929–934.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
157.Raaymakers, TW, Rinkel, GJ, Ramos, LM. Initial and follow-up screening for aneurysms in families with familial subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1998;51:1125–1130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
158.Ruigrok, YM, Rinkel, GJE, Wijmenga, C. Genetics of intracranial aneurysms. Lancet Neurol 2005;4:179–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
159.Ruigrok, YM, Rinkel, GJE. Genetics of intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2008;39:1049–1055.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
160.Nahed, BV, Bydon, M, Ozturk, AK et al. Genetics of intracranial aneurysms. Neurosurgery 2007;60:213–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
161.Ruigrok, YM, Rinkel, GJE, Wijmenga, C. The Versican gene and the risk of intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2006;37:2372–2374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
162.Ruigrok, YM, Wijmenga, C, Rinkel, GJE et al. Genomewide linkage in a large Dutch family with intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2008;39:1096–1102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
163.van den Berg, JSP, Limburg, M, Pais, G et al. Some patients with intracranial aneurysms have a reduced type III/type I collagen ratio. Neurology 1997;49:1546–1551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
164.Bull, JW. Contribution of radiology to the study of intracranial aneurysms. Br Med J 1962;2:1701–1708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
165.Locksley, HB. Report on the Cooperative Study of Intracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Section V, Part I. Natural history of subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracranial aneurysms and arteriovenous malformations. Report on 6038 cases in the cooperative study. J Neurosurg 1966;25:219–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
166.Van Gijn, J, van Dongen, KJ, Vermeulen, M, Hijdra, A. Perimesencephalic hemorrhage: a nonaneurysmal and benign form of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1985;35:493–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
167.Rinkel, GJ. Perimesencephalic nonaneurysmal hemorrhage, Thesis, University of Utrecht, Netherlands, 1991.Google Scholar
168.Rinkel, GJ, Wijdicks, E, Vermeulen, M et al. The clinical course of perimesencephalic nonaneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Ann Neurol 1991;29:463–468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
169.Schievink, WI, Wijdicks, EFM. Pretruncal subarachnoid hemorrhage: an anatomically correct description of the perimesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1997;28:2572.Google ScholarPubMed
170.McCormick, WF. The pathology of vascular (“arteriovenous”) malformations. J Neurosurg 1966;27:807–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
171.Stein, BM, Wolpert, SM. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain.I Current concepts and treatment. Arch Neurol 1980;37:1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
172.McCormick, WF. Pathology of vascular malformations of the brain. In Wilson, CB, Stein, BM (eds.), Intracranial arteriovenous malformations, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 1984, pp. 44–63.Google Scholar
173.Johnson, PC, Wachser, TM, Golfinos, J, Spetzler, RF. Definition and pathologic features. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds.), Cavernous malformations. American Association of Neurological Surgeons, Park Ridge, IL, 1993, pp. 1–11.Google Scholar
174.Topper, R, Jurgens, E, Reul, J, Thron, A. Clinical significance of intracranial developmental venous anomalies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999; 67:234–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
175.Metellus, P, Kharkar, S, Lin, D, Kapoor, S, Rigamonti, D. Cerebral cavernous malformations and developmental venous anomalies. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of Stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge Univerity Press, 2008, pp. 189–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
176.Garner, TB, Del Curling, O, Kelly, DL, Laster, DW. The natural history of intracranial venous angiomas. J Neurosurg 1991;75:715–722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
177.Hardjasudarma, M. Cavernous and venous angiomas of the central nervous system. J Neuroimaging 1991;1:191–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
178.Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds.). Cavernous malformations. American Association of Neurological Surgeons, Park Ridge, IL, 1993.Google Scholar
179.Stein, BM, Wolpert, SM. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain. I Current concepts and treatment. Arch Neurol 1980;37:1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
180.Perret, G, Nishioka, H. Report on the Cooperative Study of Intracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage, Section VI Arteriovenous malformations. An analysis of 545 cases of cranio-cerebral arteriovenous malformations and fistulas reported to the cooperative study. J Neurosurg 1966;25:467–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
181.Kaplan, HA, Aronson, SM, Browder, EJ. Vascular malformations of the brain: an anatomical study. J Neurosurg 1961;18:630–635.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
182.Mawad, ME, Hilal, SK, Michelson, WJ et al. Occlusive disease associated with cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Radiology 1984;153:401–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
183.Kelly, JJ, Mellinger, JF, Sundt, TM. Intracranial arteriovenous malformations in childhood. Ann Neurol 1978;3:338–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
184.Kondziolka, D, Humphreys, RP, Hoffman, HJ, Hendrick, EB, Drake, JM. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain in children: a forty year experience. Can J Neurol Sci. 1992;19(1):40–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
185.Gold, AP, Ransohoff, J, Carter, S. Vein of Galen malformation. Acta Neurol Scand 1964; 40 (suppl 11): 1–34.Google ScholarPubMed
186.McCormick, WF, Hardman, JM, Boulter, TR. Vascular malformations (“angiomas”) of the brain with special reference to those occurring in the posterior fossa. J Neurosurg 1968;28:241–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
187.Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds). Dural arteriovenous malformations. American Association of Neurological Surgeons, Park Ridge, IL, 1993.Google Scholar
188.Neumaier-Probst, E. Dural arteriovenous fistulas. Clin Neuroradiol 2009;19:91–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
189.Newton, TH, Weidner, W, Giertz, T. Dural arteriovenous malformations in the posterior fossa. Radiology 1968;90:27–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
190.Pierot, L, Chiras, J, Rose, M, Rivierez, M, Marsault, C. Dural arteriovenous fistulas of the posterior fossa draining into subarachnoid veins. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1992;13:315–323.Google ScholarPubMed
191.Kase, CS, Caplan, LR, Intracerebral hemorrhage, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, 1994.Google Scholar
192.Caplan, LR. Intracerebral hemorrhage revisited. Neurology 1988;38:624–627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
193.Cole, F, Yates, P. Intracerebral microaneurysms and small cerebrovascular lesions, Brain 1967;90:759–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
194.Rosenblum, WI. Miliary aneurysms and “fibrinoid” degeneration of cerebral blood vessels. Hum Pathol 1977;8:133–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
195.Fisher, CM. Pathological observations in hypertensive cerebral hemorrhages. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1971;30:536–553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
196.Takebayashi, S, Kaneko, M. Electron microscopic studies of ruptured arteries in hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1983;14:28–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
197.Takebayashi, S, Sakata, N, Kawamura, K. Re-evaluation of miliary aneurysms in hypertensive brain: recanalization of small hemorrhage. Stroke 1990;21 (Suppl 1):59–60.Google Scholar
198.Fisher, CM. Pathological observations in hypertensive cerebral hemorrhages. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1971;30:536–553.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
199.Gilbert, JJ, Vinters, HV. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: incidence and complications in the aging brain, I Cerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 1983;14:915–923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
200.Vinters, HV. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy, a critical review. Stroke 1987;18:311–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
201.Vinters, HV, Gilbert, JJ, Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: incidence and complications in the aging brain, II. The distribution of amyloid vascular changes. Stroke 1983;14:924–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
202.Cordonnier, C, Leys, D. Cerebral amyloid angiopathies. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 455–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
203.Greenberg, SM, Finkelstein, SP, Schaefer, PW. Petechial hemorrhages accompany lobar hemorrhage: detection by gradient-echo MRI. Neurology 1996;46:1751–1754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
204.Dierksen, GA, Skehan, ME, Khan, MA et al. Spatial relation between microbleeds and amyloid deposits in amyloid angiopathy. Ann Neurol 2010;68(4):545–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
205.Hoh, Y, Yamada, M, Hayakawa, M, Ottoma, E, Miyataki, T. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a significant cause of cerebellar as well as lobar cerebral hemorrhage in the elderly. J Neurol Sci 1993;116:135–141.Google Scholar
206.Flaherty, ML, Kissela, B, Woo, D, Kleindorfer, D. The increasing incidence of anticoagulant-associated intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology 2007;68:116–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
207.Toyoda, K, Okada, S, Inoue, T et al. Antithrombotic therapy and predilection for cerebellar hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007;23:109–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
208.Bousser, M-G, Ross Russell, R. Cerebral venous thrombosis. Saunders, London, 1997.Google Scholar
209.Biousse, V, Bousser, MG. Cerebral venous thrombosis. Neurologist 1999;5:326–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
210.Ehtisham, A, Stern, BJ. Cerebral venous thrombosis. A review. Neurologist 2006;12:32–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
211.Mehdiratta, M, Kumar, S, Selim, M, Caplan, LR. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis: clinical features, diagnosis and treatment. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 497–504.Google Scholar
212.Bousser, M-G, Ferro, JM. Cerebral venous thrombosis: an update. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:162–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
213.Caplan, LR. Cerebral venous thrombosis. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Caplan’s stroke, a clinical approach, 4th edition. Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2008, pp. 554–577.Google Scholar
214.Caplan, LR. Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, cardiac arrests, and cardiac encephalopathy. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Caplan’s stroke, a clinical approach, 4th edition. Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2008, pp. 375–388.Google Scholar
215.Ringelstein, EB, Dittrich, R, Stögbauer, F. Borderzone infarcts. In Caplan, LR, van Gijn, JG (eds.), Stroke syndromes 3rd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 480–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
216.Hecaen, H, Ajuriaguerra, J. Balint’s syndrome and its minor forms. Brain 1954;77:373–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
217.Montiro, J, Pena, J, Genis, D et al. Balint’s syndrome, report of 4 cases with watershed parieto-occipital lesions from vertebrobasilar ischemia or systemic hypotension. Acta Neurol Belg 1982;82:270–280.Google Scholar
218.Petito, C, Feldmann, E, Pulsinelli, W, Plum, F. Delayed hippocampal damage in humans following cardiorespiratory arrest. Neurology 1987;37:1281–1286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
219.Romanul, F, Abramowicz, A. Changes in brain and pial vessels in arterial boundary zones. Arch Neurol 1964;11:40–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
220.Amarenco, P, Kase, CS, Rosengart, A et al. Very small (border-zone) cerebellar infarcts. Brain 1993;116:161–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
221.Lance, J, Adams, RD. The syndrome of intention and action myoclonus as a sequel to hypoxic encephalopathy. Brain 1963;86:111–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
222.Keane, JR. Sustained upgaze in coma. Ann Neurol 1981;9:409–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
223.Jurgensen, JC, Towfighi, J, Brennan, RW, Jeffreys, WH. Symmetric brainstem necrosis in an adult following hypotension: an arterial end-zone infarct. Stroke 1983;14:967–970.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
224.Ng, HK, White, CS. Hypotensive symetrical hemorrhagic necrosis of the basal ganglia and brain stem. Pathology 1994;26:23–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
225.Gilles, F. Hypotensive brainstem necrosis. Arch Pathol 1969;88:32–41.Google Scholar
226.Caplan, LR, Pessin, MS, Mohr, JP. Vertebrobasilar occlusive disease. In Barnett, HJM, Mohr, JP, Stein, BM, Yatsu, F (eds.), Stroke: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management, 2nd edition. Churchill-Livingstone, New York, 1992, pp. 443–515.Google Scholar
227.Janzer, RC, Friede, RL. Hypotensive brain stem necrosis or cardiac arrest encephalopathy? Acta Neuropathol (Berlin) 1980;50:53–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
228.Solomon, D, Ramat, S, Tomsak, RL et al. Saccadic palsy after cardiac surgery: characteristics and pathogenesis. Ann Neurol. 2008; 63(3):355–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
229.Solomon, D, Ramat, S, Leigh, RJ, Zee, D. A quick look at slow saccades after cardiac surgery: where is the lesion? Prog Brain Res. 2008;171:587–590.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
230.Caplan, LR. Nonatherosclerotic vasculopathies. In Caplan, LR (eds.), Caplan’s stroke, a clinical approach, 4th edition. Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2008, pp. 389–445.Google Scholar
231.Caplan, LR (ed.) Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
232.Brust, JCM. Stroke and substance abuse. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 365–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
233.Levine, SR, Brust, JC, Futrell, N et al., Cerebrovascular complications of the use of the “crack” form of alkaloidal cocaine. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:699–704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
234.Rowley, HA, Lowenstein, DH, Rowbotham, MC, Simon, RP. Thalamo-mesencephalic strokes after cocaine abuse. Neurology 1989;39:428–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
235.Matthews, PM, Tampieri, D, Berkovic, SF et al. Magnetic resonance imaging shows specific abnormalities in the MELAS syndrome. Neurology 1991;41:1043–1046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
236.Barkovich, AJ, Good, WV, Kich, TK, Berg, BO. Mitochondrial disorders: analysis of their clinical and imaging characteristics. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1993; 14:1119–1137.Google ScholarPubMed
237.Dafer, R, Love, BB, Yilmaz, EY, Biller, J. Mitochondrial and metabolic causes of stroke. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 413–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
238.Thevathasan, AW, Davis, SM. Temporal arteritis. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 9–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
239.Wilkinson, I, Russel, R. Arteries of the head and neck in giant cell arteritis. Arch Neurol 1972;27:378–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
240.Missen, GA. Involvement of the vertebrocarotid arterial system in giant cell arteritis. J Pathol 1972;106:2–3.Google ScholarPubMed
241.Enzmann, D, Scott, WR. Intracranial involvement of giant-cell arteritis. Neurology 1977;27:794–797.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
242.Subramanyan, R, Joy, J, Balakrishnan, KG. Natural history of aortoarteritis (Takayasu’s disease). Circulation 1989;80:429–437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
243.Hall, S, Barr, W, Lie, JT et al. Takayasu arteritis: a study of 32 North American patients. Medicine 1985;54:89–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
244.Nakao, K, Ikeda, M, Kimata, S et al. Takayasu’s arteritis, clinical report of eighty-four cases and immunologic studies of seven cases. Circulation 1967;35:1141–1155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
245.Lupi-Herrera, E, Sanchez-Torres, G, Marcushamer, J et al. Takayasu’s arteritis: clinical study of 107 cases. Am Heart J 1977;93:94–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
246.Sano, K, Alga, T, Saito, I. Angiography in pulseless disease. Radiology 1970; 94:69–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
247.Kumral, E. Behçet’s disease. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 67–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
248.Chajek, T, Fainaro, M. Behçet’s disease: report of 41 cases and a review of the literature. Medicine 1975;54:179–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
249.Serdaroglu, P, Yazici, H, Ozdemir, C et al. Neurologic involvement in Behçet’s syndrome: a prospective study. Arch Neurol 1989;46:265–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
250.Herskovitz, S, Lipton, RB, Lantos, G. Neuro-Behçet’s disease: CT and clinical correlates. Neurology 1988;38:1714–1720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
251.Al Kawi, MZ, Bohlega, S, Banna, M. MRI findings in neuro-Behçet’s disease. Neurology 1991;41:405–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
252.Wechsler, B, Vidailhet, M, Piette, JC et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis in Behçet’s disease: clinical study and long-term follow-up of 25 cases. Neurology 1992;42:614–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
253.Nagel, MA, Cohrs, RJ, Mahalingam, R et al. The varicella zoster virus vasculopathies. Clinical, CSF, imaging and virologic features. Neurology 2008;70:853–860.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
254.Doyle, PW, Gibson, G, Dolman, C. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus with contralateral hemiplegia: identification of cause. Ann Neurol 1983;14:84–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
255.Powers, JM. Herpes zoster maxillaris with delayed occipital infarction. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1986;2:113–115.Google Scholar
256.Snow, BJ, Simcock, JP. Brainstem infarction following cervical herpes zoster. Neurology 1988;38:1331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
257.Ross, MH, Abend, WK, Schwartz, RB, Samuels, MA. A case of C2 herpes zoster with delayed bilateral pontine infarction. Neurology 1991;41:1685–1686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
258.Patrick, JT, Russell, E, Meyer, J et al. Cervical (C2) herpes zoster infection followed by pontine infarction. J Neuroimaging 1995;5:192–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
259.Katrak, S. Vasculitis and stroke due to tuberculosis. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 41–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
260.Hier, DB, Caplan, LR. Stroke due to fungal infections. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 47–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
261.Hsieh, F, Chia, L, Shen, W. Location of cerebral infarctions in tuberculous meningitis. Neuroradiology 1992;34:197–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
262.Simon, RP. Neurosyphilis. Neurology 1994;44:2228–2230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
263.Davis, LE, Graham, GD. Neurosyphilis and stroke. In Caplan, LR (ed.), Uncommon causes of stroke, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 35–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
264.Tyler, KL, Sandberg, E, Baum, KF. Medial medullary syndrome and meningovascular syphilis: a case report in an HIV-infected man and a review of the literature. Neurology 1994;44:2231–2235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
265.Weinstein, AJ, Schianone, WA, Furlan, AJ. Listeria rhomboencephalitis. Arch Neurol 1982;39:514–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
266.Brown, RH, Sobel, RA. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. New Engl J Med 1989;321:739–750.Google Scholar
267.Frayne, J, Gates, P. Listeria rhomboencephalitis. Clin Exp Neurol 1987;24:175–179.Google ScholarPubMed
268.Silvestri, N, Ajani, Z, Savitz, S, Caplan, LR. A 73-year-old woman with an acute illness causing fever and cranial nerve abnormalities. Rev Neurol Dis 2006; 29–30, 35–37.Google ScholarPubMed

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×