Views of childhood carry implications for questions such as how much independence and control is appropriate, whether and how young people should be punished, and how far they should be protected from physical and moral dangers. These matters are affected by the cultural role and status of children and, in turn, dependent on aspects of social structure, the occupations of children, the family and the community. They also depend on perceived influences on the developing child. This chapter looks at the attitudes of children and adults towards key influences on young people, parental control, discipline and punishment, and the protection of children from physical, emotional and moral danger. First, however, there is a brief examination of some theories of child development that have, over the years, influenced approaches to child-rearing.

Models of child development

A plethora of theories about child development, which may or may not have contemporary currency, have pointed to the ‘appropriate’ influences, controls and forms of protection necessary to promote the optimum development of the child. What has been suggested has varied enormously and depends, for example, on whether or not behaviour and development are seen as predetermined or susceptible to external influences. The nature versus nurture debate continues and the main conclusion seems to be that genetics and the environment are both important, and that the two kinds of influence co-vary and interact. Whether there are critical or sensitive stages in human development has also been much discussed. In other words, are there specific times when experiences can have an impact, or at least ages when effects will be most marked? Many writers over the past century have based their ideas of child development on sensitive stages of some kind. Examples include Freud and Erikson in the area of emotional development, Piaget in relation to cognitive learning, and Kohlberg for moral development.

Views in these areas have, over the centuries, been reflected in the advice given in child-rearing manuals. While these give an indication of dominant attitudes and approaches to bringing up children at various points in history, they do not necessarily reflect how most children were actually brought up. Historians tend to use these manuals as sourcebooks of ideologies and practice but it is not always clear how far they illustrate common patterns and trends.