Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-g98kq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-13T22:56:06.644Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

12 - Benign and Malignant Tumors of the Liver

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 August 2009

By
Morris Sherman
Edited by
Zobair M. Younossi
Zobair M. Younossi
Affiliation:
Inova Fairfax Hospital, Annandale, VA
Get access

Summary

BACKGROUND

There are a large number of tumors that may grow in the liver. Most are rare, and do not merit more than a passing mention. This discussion will therefore be limited to the three benign tumors or tumor-like lesions, hemangioma, focal nodular hyperplasia, and hepatic adenoma, and to the two most common malignant tumors of the liver, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (CC). These five entities account for the vast majority of nodular lesions found on radiological examination of the liver.

HEMANGIOMA

Hemangioma is the most common liver tumor. It is found in up to 20% of autopsy series. Hemangiomas tend to occur more frequently in women than men. They may be single or multiple and may vary in size from a few millimeters to 10 cm or more, although most are smaller than 5 cm in diameter. They consist of vascular channels lined by a single endothelial layer, supported by fibrous tissue. The vascular spaces may contain thrombi that may calcify. In some hemangiomas, the calcified thrombus might be large enough to be seen radiologically. Hemangioma may be associated with focal nodular hyperplasia.

Hemangioma is a benign lesion, and never develops malignancy. Whether the lesion is hormone sensitive is controversial. There are reports of enlargement of hemangiomas with pregnancy or exogenous estrogen administration. However, hemangiomas may enlarge in the absence of these stimuli.

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
Practical Management of Liver Diseases , pp. 195 - 214
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Karhunen, PJ. Benign hepatic tumours and tumour like conditions in men. J Clin Pathol. 1986;39:183–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Di, Carlo I, Urrico, GS, Ursino, V, Russello, D, Puleo, S, Latteri, F. Simultaneous occurrence of adenoma, focal nodular hyperplasia, and hemangioma of the liver: are they derived from a common origin?J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2003;18:227–30.Google Scholar
Gemer, O, Moscovici, O, Ben-Horin, CL, Linov, L, Peled, R, Segal, S. Oral contraceptives and liver hemangioma: a case-control study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004;83:1199–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glinkova, V, Shevah, O, Boaz, M, Levine, A, Shirin, H. Hepatic haemangiomas: possible association with female sex hormones. Gut. 2004;53:1352–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Au, WY, Liu, CL. Growth of giant hepatic hemangioma after triplet pregnancy. J Hepatol. 2005;42:781.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saegusa, T, Ito, K, Oba, N, Matsuda, M, Kojima, K, Tohyama, K, Matsumoto, M, Miura, K, Suzuki, H. Enlargement of multiple cavernous hemangioma of the liver in association with pregnancy. Intern Med. 1995;34:207–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozakyol, A, Kebapci, M. Enhanced growth of hepatic hemangiomatosis in two adults after postmenopausal estrogen replacement therapy. Tohoku J Exp Med. 2006;210:257–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piga, M, Satta, L, Corrias, M, Montaldo, C, Loi, GL, Madeddu, G. Simultaneous 99mTc double labelling of the hepatic reticuloendothelial system and of the red blood cells: a simplified method for the detection of liver hemangiomas. J Nucl Med Allied Sci. 1990;34:77–80.Google ScholarPubMed
Numminen, K, Halavaara, J, Isoniemi, H, Tervahartiala, P, Kivisaari, L, Numminen, J, Hockerstedt, K. Magnetic resonance imaging of the liver: true fast imaging with steady state free precession sequence facilitates rapid and reliable distinction between hepatic hemangiomas and liver malignancies. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2003;27:571–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, MS, Murakami, T, Baron, RL. MR imaging patterns of gadolinium retention within liver neoplasms. Abdom Imaging. 1998;23:592–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, CM, Sheedy, PF 2nd, Stanson, AW, Stephens, DH, Hattery, RR, Adson, MA. Computed tomography and angiography of cavernous hemangiomas of the liver. Radiology. 1981;138:115–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birnbaum, BA, Weinreb, JC, Megibow, AJ, Sanger, JJ, Lubat, E, Kanamuller, H, Noz, ME, Bosniak, MA. Definitive diagnosis of hepatic hemangiomas: MR imaging versus Tc-99m-labeled red blood cell SPECT. Radiology. 1990;176:95–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, TK, Jang, HJ, Wilson, SR. Benign liver masses: imaging with microbubble contrast agents. Ultrasound Q. 2006;22:31–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Shimoji, K, Shiraishi, R, Kuwatsuru, A, Maehara, T, Matsumoto, T, Kurosaki, Y. Spontaneous subacute intratumoral hemorrhage of hepatic cavernous hemangioma. Abdom Imaging. 2004;29:443–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krasuski, P, Poniecka, A, Gal, E, Wali, A. Intrapartum spontaneous rupture of liver hemangioma. J Matern Fetal Med. 2001;10:290–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ontachi, Y, Asakura, H, Omote, M, Yoshida, T, Matsui, O, Nakao, S. Kasabach-Merritt syndrome associated with giant liver hemangioma: the effect of combined therapy with danaparoid sodium and tranexamic acid. Haematologica. 2005 Nov;90.Google ScholarPubMed
Reddy, KR, Kligerman, S, Levi, J, Livingstone, A, Molina, E, Franceschi, D, Badalamenti, S, Jeffers, L, Tzakis, A, Schiff, ER. Benign and solid tumors of the liver: relationship to sex, age, size of tumors, and outcome. Am Surg. 2001;67:173–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Wanless, IR, Mawdsley, C, Adams, R. On the pathogenesis of focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver. Hepatology. 1985;5:1194–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrnes, V, Cardenas, A, Afdhal, N, Hanto, D. Symptomatic focal nodular hyperplasia during pregnancy: a case report. Ann Hepatol. 2004;3:35–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Scalori, A, Tavani, A, Gallus, S, Vecchia, C, Colombo, M.Oral contraceptives and the risk of focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver: a case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;186:195–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathieu, D, Kobeiter, H, Maison, P, Rahmouni, A, Cherqui, D, Zafrani, ES, Dhumeaux, D. Oral contraceptive use and focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver. Gastroenterology. 2000;118:560–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ohmoto, K, Honda, T, Hirokawa, M, Mitsui, Y, Iguchi, Y, Kuboki, M, Yamamoto, S. Spontaneous regression of focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver. J Gastroenterol. 2002;37:849–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Di, Stasi M, Caturelli, E, Sio, I, Salmi, A, Buscarini, E, Buscarini, L. Natural history of focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver: an ultrasound study. J Clin Ultrasound. 1996;24:345–50.Google Scholar
Yen, YH, Wang, JH, Lu, SN, Chen, TY, Changchien, CS, Chen, CH, Hung, CH, Lee, CM. Contrast-enhanced ultrasonographic spoke-wheel sign in hepatic focal nodular hyperplasia. Eur J Radiol. 2006;14.Google Scholar
Terkivatan, T, Bos, IC, Hussain, SM, Wielopolski, PA, Man, RA, IJzermans, JN. Focal nodular hyperplasia: lesion characteristics on state-of-the-art MRI including dynamic gadolinium-enhanced and superparamagnetic iron-oxide-uptake sequences in a prospective study. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2006;24:864–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicolau, C, Vilana, R, Catala, V, Bianchi, L, Gilabert, R, Garcia, A, Bru, C. Importance of evaluating all vascular phases on contrast-enhanced sonography in the differentiation of benign from malignant focal liver lesions. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2006;186:158–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, MJ, Saini, S, Hamm, B, Taupitz, M, Hahn, PF, Seneterre, E, Ferrucci, JT. Focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver: MR findings in 35 proved cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1991;156:317–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicolau, C, Vilana, R, Catala, V, Bianchi, L, Gilabert, R, Garcia, A, Bru, C. Importance of evaluating all vascular phases on contrast-enhanced sonography in the differentiation of benign from malignant focal liver lesions. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2006;186:158–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vogl, TJ, Own, A, Hammerstingl, R, Reichel, P, Balzer, JO. Transarterial embolization as a therapeutic option for focal nodular hyperplasia in four patients. Eur Radiol. 2006;16:670–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geschwind, JF, Degli, MS, Morris, JM, Choti, MA. Treatment of focal nodular hyperplasia with selective transcatheter arterial embolization using iodized oil and polyvinyl alcohol. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2002;25:340–1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terkivatan, T, Hussain, SM, Lameris, JS, IJzermans, JN. Transcatheter arterial embolization as a safe and effective treatment for focal nodular hyperplasia of the liver. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 2002;25:450–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erdogan, D, Busch, OR, Delden, OM, Ten, Kate FJ, Gouma, DJ, Gulik, TM. Management of spontaneous haemorrhage and rupture of hepatocellular adenomas. A single centre experience. Liver Int. 2006;26:433–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, JK, Bookstein, JJ, Holtz, F, Klein, EW. Possible association between benign hepatomas and oral contraceptives. Lancet. 1973;2(7835):926–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ammentorp, PA, Carson, RP. Hepatocellular adenoma and oral contraceptives. Ohio State Med J. 1976;72:283–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Rooks, JB, Ory, HW, Ishak, KG, Strauss, LT, Greenspan, JR, Hill, AP, Tyler, CW Jr. ,Epidemiology of hepatocellular adenoma. The role of oral contraceptive use. JAMA. 1979;242:644–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nissen, ED, Kent, DR, Nissen, SE. Role of oral contraceptive agents in the pathogenesis of liver tumors. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1979;5:231–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aseni, P, Sansalone, CV, Sammartino, C, Benedetto, FD, Carrafiello, G, Giacomoni, A, Osio, C, Vertemati, M, Forti, D. Rapid disappearance of hepatic adenoma after contraceptive withdrawal. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2001;33:234–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinbrecher, UP, Lisbona, R, Huang, SN, Mishkin, S. Complete regression of hepatocellular adenoma after withdrawal of oral contraceptives. Dig Dis Sci. 1981;26:1045–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinemann, , Weimann, A, Gerken, G, Thiel, C, Schlaud, M, DoMinh, T. Modern oral contraceptive use and benign liver tumors: the German Benign Liver Tumor Case-Control Study. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 1998;3:194–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grange, JD, Guechot, J, Legendre, C, Giboudeau, J, Darnis, F, Poupon, R. Liver adenoma and focal nodular hyperplasia in a man with high endogenous sex steroids. Gastroenterology. 1987;93:1409–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NakaoA, A,Sakagami, K, Nakata, Y, Komazawa, K, Amimoto, T, Nakashima, K, Isozaki, H, Takakura, N, Tanaka, N. Multiple hepatic adenomas caused by long-term administration of androgenic steroids for aplastic anemia in association with familial adenomatous polyposis. J Gastroenterol. 2000;35:557–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Menis, E, Tramontin, P, Conte, N. Danazol and multiple hepatic adenomas: peculiar clinical findings in an acromegalic patient. Horm Metab Res. 1999;31:476–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Socas, L, Zumbado, M, Perez-Luzardo, O, Ramos, A, Perez, C, Hernandez, JR, Boada, LD. Hepatocellular adenomas associated with anabolic androgenic steroid abuse in bodybuilders: a report of two cases and a review of the literature. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franco, LM, Krishnamurthy, V, Bali, D, Weinstein, DA, Arn, P, Clary, B, Boney, A, Sullivan, J, Frush, DP, Chen, YT, Kishnani, PS. Hepatocellular carcinoma in glycogen storage disease type Ia: a case series. J Inherit Metab Dis. 2005;28:153–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagiwara, S, Takagi, H, Kanda, D, Sohara, N, Kakizaki, S, Katakai, K, Yoshinaga, T, Higuchi, T, Nomoto, K, Kuwano, H, Mori, M. Hepatic adenomatosis associated with hormone replacement therapy and hemosiderosis: a case report. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:652–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grazioli, L, Federle, MP, Brancatelli, G, Ichikawa, T, Olivetti, L, Blachar, A. Hepatic adenomas: imaging and pathologic findings. Radiographics. 2001;21:877–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ito, M, Sasaki, M, Wen, CY, Nakashima, M, Ueki, T, Ishibashi, H, Yano, M, Kage, M, Kojiro, M. Liver cell adenoma with malignant transformation: a case report. World J Gastroenterol. 2003;9:2379–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gyorffy, EJ, Bredfeldt, JE, Black, WC. Transformation of hepatic cell adenoma to hepatocellular carcinoma due to oral contraceptive use. Ann Intern Med. 1989;15;110: 489–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dietrich, CF, Schuessler, G, Trojan, J, Fellbaum, C, Ignee, A. Differentiation of focal nodular hyperplasia and hepatocellular adenoma by contrast-enhanced ultrasound. Br J Radiol. 2005;78:704–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brancatelli, G, Federle, MP, Vullierme, MP, Lagalla, R, Midiri, M, Vilgrain, V. CT and MR imaging evaluation of hepatic adenoma. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2006;30:745–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kebapci, M, Kaya, T, Aslan, O, Bor, O, Entok, E. Hepatic adenomatosis: gadolinium-enhanced dynamic MR findings. Abdom Imaging. 2001;26:264–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fujita, S, Kushihata, F, Herrmann, GE, Mergo, PJ, Liu, C, Nelson, D, Fujikawa, T, Hemming, AW. Combined hepatic resection and radiofrequency ablation for multiple hepatic adenomas. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21:1351–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rocourt, DV, Shiels, WE, Hammond, S, Besner, GE. Contemporary management of benign hepatic adenoma using percutaneous radiofrequency ablation. J Pediatr Surg. 2006;41:1149–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parkin, DM, Bray, F, Ferlay, J, Pisani, P. Estimating the world cancer burden: Globocan 2000. Int J Cancer 2001;94:153–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elmberg, M, Hultcrantz, R, Ekbom, A, Brandt, L, Olsson, S, Olsson, R et al. Cancer risk in patients with hereditary hemochromatosis and in their first-degree relatives. Gastroenterology 2003;125:1733–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eriksson, S, Carlson, J, Velez, R. Risk of cirrhosis and primary liver cancer in alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency. N Engl J Med 1986;314:736–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caballeria, L, Pares, A, Castells, A, Gines, A, Bru, C, Rodes, J. Hepatocellular carcinoma in primary biliary cirrhosis: similar incidence to that in hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96(4):1160–3.Google Scholar
Shimada, M, Hashimoto, E, Taniai, M, Hasegawa, K, Okuda, H, Hayashi, N et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. J Hepatol 2002; 37:154–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosch, FX, Ribes, J, Diaz, M, Cleries, R. Primary liver cancer: worldwide incidence and trends. Gastroenterology 2004; 127(5 Suppl 1):S5–S16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El Serag, HB, Mason, AC. Rising incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States. N Engl J Med 1999; 340:745–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deuffic, S, Poynard, T, Buffat, L, Valleron, AJ. Trends in primary liver cancer. Lancet 1998; 351(9097):214–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroffolini, T, Andreone, P, Andriulli, A, Ascione, A, Craxi, A, Chiaramonte, M et al. Characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italy. J Hepatol 1998; 29:944–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor-Robinson, SD, Foster, GR, Arora, S, Hargreaves, S, Thomas, HC. Increase in primary liver cancer in the UK, 1979–94. Lancet 1997; 350(9085):1142–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, BH, Yang, BH, Tang, ZY. Randomized controlled trial of screening for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2004; 130:417–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trevisani, F, D'Intino, PE, Morselli-Labate, AM, Mazzella, G, Accogli, E, Caraceni, P et al. Serum alpha-fetoprotein for diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic liver disease: influence of HBsAg and anti-HCV status. J Hepatol 2001; 34:570–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruix, J, Sherman, M; Practice Guidelines Committee, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2005;42:1208–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruix, J, Llovet, JM. Prognostic prediction and treatment strategy in HCC. Hepatology 2002; 35:519–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazzaferro, V, Regalia, E, Doci, R, Andreola, S, Pulvirenti, A, Bozzetti, F et al. Liver transplantation for the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinomas in patients with cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:693–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yao, FY, Ferrell, L, Bass, NM, Watson, JJ, Bacchetti, P, Venook, A et al. Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: expansion of the tumor size limits does not adversely impact survival. Hepatology 2001; 33:1394–1403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llovet, JM, Fuster, J, Bruix, J. Intention-to-Treat Analysis of Surgical Treatment for Early Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Resection Versus Transplantation. Hepatology 1999; 30:1434–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grazi, GL, Ercolani, G, Pierangeli, F, Del, Gaudio M, Cescon, M, Cavallari, A et al. Improved results of liver resection for hepatocellular carcinoma on cirrhosis give the procedure added value. Ann Surg 2001; 234:71–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruix, J, Castells, A, Bosch, J, Feu, F, Fuster, J, Garcia-Pagan, JC et al. Surgical resection of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic patients: prognostic value of preoperative portal pressure. Gastroenterology 1996; 111:1018–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andriulli, A, Sio, I, Brunello, F, Salmi, A, Solmi, L, Facciorusso, D, Caturelli, E, Perri, F. Survival of patients with early hepatocellular carcinoma treated by percutaneous alcohol injection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006;23:1329–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livraghi, T, Solbiati, L, Meloni, MF, Gazelle, GS, Halpern, EF, Goldberg, SN. Treatment of focal liver tumors with percutaneous radio-frequency ablation: complications encountered in a multicenter study. Radiology 2003; 226:441–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, MS, Li, JQ, Zheng, Y, Guo, RP, Liang, HH, Zhang, YQ, Lin, XJ, Lau, WY. A prospective randomized trial comparing percutaneous local ablative therapy and partial hepatectomy for small hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Surg. 2006 Mar;243(3):321–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sala, M, Llovet, JM, Vilana, R, Bianchi, L, Sole, M, Ayuso, C, Bru, C, Bruix, J; Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer Group. Initial response to percutaneous ablation predicts survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 2004 Dec;40(6):1352–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llovet, JM, Real, MI, Montanya, X, Planas, R, Coll, S, Aponte, AJ et al. Arterial embolization, chemoembolization versus symptomatic treatment in patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized controlled trial. The Lancet 2002; 359:1734–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lo, CM, Ngan, H, Tso, WK, Liu, CL, Lam, CM, Poon, RT et al. Randomized controlled trial of transarterial lipiodol chemoembolization for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2002; 35:1164–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Llovet, JM, Bruix, J. Systematic review of randomized trials for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: Chemoembolization improves survival. Hepatology. 2003;37:429–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salem, R, Lewandowski, RJ, Atassi, B, Gordon, SC, Gates, VL, Barakat, O, Sergie, Z, Wong, CY, Thurston, KG. Treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with use of 90Y microspheres (TheraSphere): safety, tumor response, and survival. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2005;16:1627–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaib, YH, Davila, JA, McGlynn, K, El-Serag, HB. Rising incidence of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in the United States: a true increase?J Hepatol. 2004;40:472–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, SA, Thomas, HC, Davidson, BR, Taylor-Robinson, SD. Cholangiocarcinoma. Lancet. 2005;366(9493):1303–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaib, YH, El-Serag, HB, Davila, JA, Morgan, R, McGlynn, KA. Risk factors of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in the United States: a case-control study. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:620–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlynn, KA, Tarone, RE, El-Serag, HB. A comparison of trends in the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15:1198–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, CD, Pinson, CW, Berlin, J, Chari, RS. Diagnosis and treatment of cholangiocarcinoma. Oncologist. 2004;9:43–57.86. Khan SA, Davidson BR, Goldin R, Pereira SP, Rosenberg WM, Taylor-Robinson SD, Thillainayagam AV, Thomas HC, Thursz MR, Wasan H; British Society of Gastroenterology. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of cholangiocarcinoma: consensus document. Gut. 2002;51 Suppl 6: VI1–9.Google Scholar
Saini, S. Imaging of the hepatobiliary tract. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1889–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, Y, Uchida, M, Abe, T, Nishimura, H, Hayabuchi, N, Nakashima, Y. Intrahepatic peripheral cholangiocarcinoma: comparison of dynamic CT and dynamic MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1999;23:670–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeh, TS, Jan, YY, Tseng, JH, Chiu, CT, Chen, TC, Hwang, TL, Chen, MF. Malignant perihilar biliary obstruction: magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatographic findings. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:432–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abu-Hamda, EM, Baron, TH. Endoscopic management of cholangiocarcinoma. Semin Liver Dis. 2004;24:165–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, SK, Kang, KW, Lee, JS, Kim, HK, Chang, HJ, Choi, JY, Lee, JH, Ryu, KW, Kim, YW, Bae, JM. Assessment of lymph node metastases using 18F-FDG PET in patients with advanced gastric cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2006;33:148–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fritscher-Ravens, A, Bohuslavizki, KH, Broering, DC, Jenicke, L, Schafer, H, Buchert, R, Rogiers, X, Clausen, M. FDG PET in the diagnosis of hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Nucl Med Commun. 2001;22:1277–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, CD, Rice, MH, Pinson, CW, Chapman, WC, Chari, RS, Delbeke, D. Fluorodeoxyglucose PET imaging in the evaluation of gallbladder carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma. J Gastrointest Surg. 2004;8:90–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kato, T, Tsukamoto, E, Kuge, Y, Katoh, C, Nambu, T, Nobuta, A, Kondo, S, Asaka, M, Tamaki, N. Clinical role of (18)F-FDG PET for initial staging of patients with extrahepatic bile duct cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2002;29:1047–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nehls, O, Gregor, M, Klump, B. Serum and bile markers for cholangiocarcinoma. Semin Liver Dis. 2004;24:139–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patel, AH, Harnois, DM, Klee, GG, LaRusso, NF, Gores, GJThe utility of CA 19–9 in the diagnoses of cholangiocarcinoma in patients without primary sclerosing cholangitisAm J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:204–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jarnagin, WR, Shoup M Surgical management of cholangiocarcinoma Semin Liver Dis. 2004;24:189–99.CrossRef
Su, CH, Tsay, SH, Wu, CC, Shyr, YM, King, KL, Lee, CH, Lui, WY, Liu, TJ, P'eng, FK. Factors influencing postoperative morbidity, mortality, and survival after resection for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg. 1996;223:384–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nimura, Y, Hayakawa, N, Kamiya, J, Kondo, S, Shionoya, S. Hepatic segmentectomy with caudate lobe resection for bile duct carcinoma of the hepatic hilus. World J Surg. 1990;14:535–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakeeb, A, Tran, KQ, Black, MJ, Erickson, BA, Ritch, PS, Quebbeman, EJ, Wilson, SD, Demeure, MJ, Rilling, WS, Dua, KS, Pitt, HA. Improved survival in resected biliary malignancies. Surgery. 2002;132:555–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hadjis, NS, Blenkharn, JI, Alexander, N, Benjamin, IS, Blumgart, LH. Outcome of radical surgery in hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Surgery. 1990 Jun;107(6):597–604.Google Scholar
Pichlmayr, R, Weimann, A, Klempnauer, J, Oldhafer, KJ, Maschek, H, Tusch, G, Ringe, B. Surgical treatment in proximal bile duct cancer. A single-center experience. Ann Surg. 1996;224:628–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jarnagin, WR, Fong, Y, DeMatteo, RP, Gonen, M, Burke, EC, Bodniewicz, BS J, Youssef, BA M, Klimstra, D, Blumgart, LH. Staging, resectability, and outcome in 225 patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg. 2001;234:507–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wade, TP, Prasad, CN, Virgo, KS, Johnson, FE. Experience with distal bile duct cancers in U.S. Veterans Affairs hospitals: 1987–1991. Surg Oncol. 1997;64:242–5.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cameron, JL, Pitt, HA, Zinner, MJ, Kaufman, SL, Coleman, J. Management of proximal cholangiocarcinomas by surgical resection and radiotherapy. Am J Surg. 1990;159:91–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Todoroki, T. Chemotherapy for bile duct carcinoma in the light of adjuvant chemotherapy to surgery. Hepatogastroenterology. 2000;47:644–9.Google Scholar
Todoroki, T, Ohara, K, Kawamoto, T, Koike, N, Yoshida, S, Kashiwagi, H, Otsuka, M, Fukao, K. Benefits of adjuvant radiotherapy after radical resection of locally advanced main hepatic duct carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;46:581–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ohnishi, H, Asada, M, Shichijo, Y, Iijima, N, Itobayashi, E, Shimura, K, Suzuki, T, Yoshida, S, Mine, T. External radiotherapy for biliary decompression of hilar cholangiocarcinomaHepatogastroenterology. 1995;42:265–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Pitt, HA, Gomes, AS, Lois, JF, Mann, LL, Deutsch, LS, Longmire, WP Jr.Does preoperative percutaneous biliary drainage reduce operative risk or increase hospital cost?Ann Surg. 1985;201:545–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, CG, Penn, I, James, L. Liver transplantation for cholangiocarcinoma: results in 207 patients. Transplantation. 2000;69:1633–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rea, DJ, Heimbach, JK, Rosen, CB, Haddock, MG, Alberts, SR, Kremers, WK, Gores, GJ, Nagorney, DM. Liver transplantation with neoadjuvant chemoradiation is more effective than resection for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. Ann Surg. 2005;242:451–8.Google ScholarPubMed

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this chapter is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×