Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of figures
- List of tables
- Preface to the Third Edition
- Acknowledgments
- 1 Mountains and their climatological study
- 2 Geographical controls of mountain meteorological elements
- 3 Circulation systems related to orography
- 4 Climatic characteristics of mountains
- 5 Regional case studies
- 6 Mountain bioclimatology
- 7 Changes in mountain climates
- Appendix
- Index
- References
4 - Climatic characteristics of mountains
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 May 2010
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- List of figures
- List of tables
- Preface to the Third Edition
- Acknowledgments
- 1 Mountains and their climatological study
- 2 Geographical controls of mountain meteorological elements
- 3 Circulation systems related to orography
- 4 Climatic characteristics of mountains
- 5 Regional case studies
- 6 Mountain bioclimatology
- 7 Changes in mountain climates
- Appendix
- Index
- References
Summary
The basic factors and processes affecting mountain climate have been discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. When climatic elements such as temperature or precipitation are considered, their temporal and spatial characteristics in mountain areas are inevitably determined by the total complex of these factors – latitude, continentality, altitude and topography – operating together. In this chapter, therefore, some general climatic characteristics of mountain areas are examined for individual climatic elements. We begin by considering energy budgets and slope temperature profiles. This is followed by a discussion of cloudiness, precipitation, other hydrometeors, and evaporation. The ways in which altitudinal and topographic effects, in particular, interact to create orographic patterns in the spatial and temporal distribution of each climatic element are illustrated.
ENERGY BUDGETS
It was noted in Chapter 2 that mountain sites were of special importance to early research on solar radiation, but there has been a general lack of modern radiation and energy budget studies in the mountains. An adequate level of information on the spatial and temporal distribution of radiation exists only for the European Alps. This material provided the basis for the generalizations on altitudinal effects presented in Chapter 2 (pp. 34–51) and all that can be usefully added here is to illustrate the types of work carried out in a few other mountain areas and some of the findings.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Mountain Weather and Climate , pp. 251 - 362Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2008
References
, et al. (2006) Correction of global precipitation for orographic effects. J. Climate, 19, 15–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1962) Nekotorye cherty radiatsonnogo rezhima, teplogo balansa, mikroklimata gornogo perevala (Some characteristics of the radiation regime, heat balance and microclimate of a mountain pass). Met. Gidrol., 3, 273–82.Google Scholar
, and (1974) Instrument and Observing Problems in Cold Climates. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, No. 384.Google Scholar
(1986) Mesoscale indexing of the distribution of orographic precipitation over high mountains. J. Clim. Appl. Met., 25, 532–45.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1937) Shielded storage precipitation gages. Mon. Weather Rev., 65, 262–5.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1976) Accuracy of reservoir inflow measurements based on radar rainfall measurements. Water Resources Res., 12, 217–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2004) Conference notebook orographic precipitation and the form of mountain ranges. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 85, 498–9.Google Scholar
(1980) Bergeron and the oreigenic (orographic) maxima of precipitation. Pure Appl. Geophys., 119, 558–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1967) A moisture-balance profile in the Sierra Nevada. J. Hydrol., 5, 252–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, B. W. and Smithson, P. A. (1976) Precipitation. In and (eds), The Climate of the British Isles. London: Longman, pp. 129–82.Google Scholar
(1967) Lage und Ausmass der “warmen Hangzone” in einen Quertal der Innenalp. Ann. Met., 3, 159–65.Google Scholar
(1990) The role of mountain flows in making clouds. Atmospheric processes over complex terrain. Meteorol. Monogr., 23(45), 229–83.Google Scholar
and (1977) The intensity of different kinds of rime on the upper tree line in the Sudety Mountains. J. Glaciol., 19, 489–97.Google Scholar
(1973) A climatological transect along the east slope of the Front Range. Colorado. Arct. Alp. Res., 5, 89–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005) Evaluation of an orographic precipitation model. J. Hydromet., 6, 85–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1994) Statistical relationships between topography and precipitation patterns. J. Climate, 7(9), 1305–15.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1960–2) Die Lufttemperatur als Standortsfaktor am Grossen Falkenstein, 1. Forstwiss. Centralblatt, 79, 362–73; 2. Forstwiss. Centralblatt, 80, 107–20; 3. Forstwiss. Centralblatt, 81, 17–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1975) Sublimation or melting: observations from the White Mountains, California, and Nevada, U.S.A. J. Glaciol., 14(71), 275–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benizou, P. (1989) Taking topography into account for network optimization in mountainous areas. In (ed.), Precipitation Measurement, WMO/IAHS/ETH Workshop on Precipitation Measurement. Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, pp. 307–12.Google Scholar
(1986) Blowing snow at a Colorado alpine site: Measurements and implications. Arctic Alpine Res., 18, 147–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1988) Mountain-top riming at sites in California and Nevada, U.S.A. Arct. Alp. Res., 20, 429–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1975) Prediction of natural snowdrift accumulation in alpine areas, Final Report to Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Expt. Station (USFS 16–388-CA). Boulder, CO: Department of Geography, University of Colorado.
and (1964) Evaporation from a winter snow cover in the Rocky Mountain forest zone. In Proc. 32nd Western Snow Conference, pp. 52–8.Google Scholar
(1949) Problem of artificial control of rainfall on the globe. Tellus, 1, 32–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1960) Problems and methods of rainfall investigation. In The Physics of Precipitation. Geophysical Monograph No. 5. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, pp. 5–30.Google Scholar
(1961) Preliminary results of Project Pluvius. International Association of Scientific Hydrology, Publication No. 53, pp. 226–37.Google Scholar
(1964) The fall-off with height of terrain-induced vertical velocity. J. appl. Met., 3, 410–14.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1969) Rime and hoarfrost in upper-slope forests of eastern Washington. J. Forestry, 67, 92–5.Google Scholar
(2001) Theory of structure formation in snowfields motivated by penitentes, suncups, and dirt comes. Phys. Rev., E, 63, 056129, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2001) Snowdrift sublimation in a katabatic wind region of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. J. appl. Met., 40(11), 1952–66.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1972) Orographic influences on the distribution of precipitation. In The Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. II. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization no. 326, pp. 322–33.Google Scholar
(1945) Orographic rainfall and its place in the hydrology of the globe. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 71, 41–55.Google Scholar
(1965) K metodike rascheta summarnoy radiatsii dlya uslovii gornogo plato. [The calculation of radiation total for mountain plateau conditions] Trudy Glav. Geofiz. Obs., 179, 98–107.Google Scholar
(1967) K voprosy o vliyanii mestnikh faktorov na prikhod radiastsii v gornoi mestnosti. [On the influence of local factors on the radiation receipts in mountain locations] Trudy Glav. Geofiz. Obs., 209, 70–7.Google Scholar
and (1982) A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation change on water yield and evapotranspiration. J. Hydrol., 55, 2–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1994) Regional-scale flows in mountainous terrain. Part I: A numerical and observational comparison. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122, 1449–71.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1968) Meteorological bases for precipitation development. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 49, 343–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1979) Heat exchange across a snow surface at 5365 meters, Mt. Logan, Yukon. Arct. Alp. Res., 11, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1962) Reliability of precipitation measurements as related to exposure. J. appl. Met., 1, 203–7.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browning, K. A. (1980) Structure, mechanism and prediction of orographically enhanced rain in Britain. In and (eds), Orographic Effects in Planetary Flows, GARP Publication Series No. 23. Geneva: WMO-ICSU Joint Scientific Committee, World Meteorological Organization, pp. 85–114.Google Scholar
(1985) Conceptual models of precipitation systems. Wea. Forecasting, 1, 23–41.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1969) Air motion and precipitation growth in a wave depression. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 95, 288–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1974) Structure and mechanism of precipitation and the effect of orography in a wintertime warm sector. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 100, 309–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1975) The nature of orographic rain at wintertime cold fronts. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 101, 333–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2001) Spatial variations in the average rainfall–altitude relationship in Great Britain: An approach using geographically-weighted regression. Int. J. Climatol., 21, 455–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1961) Stress-differential induced divergence with application to littoral precipitation. Erdkunde, 15, 287–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1975) An elevational control of peak snowpack variability. Water Res. Bull., 11, 613–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1983) A model of the seeder-feeder mechanism of orographic rain including stratification and wind-drift effects. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 109, 575–88.Google Scholar
and (1989) Mist and fog interception in elfin cloud forests in Colombia and Venezuela. J. Trop. Ecol., 5, 309–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (2005) Solid precipitation reconstruction using snow depth measurements and a land surface hydrology model. Water Resour. Res., 41(9), W09401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1970) A generalized computer program for the solution of the Penman equation for evapotranspiration. J. Hydrol., 10, 75–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1974) An assessment of the topographic controls on the distribution of rainfall in the central Pennines. Met. Mag., 103, 275–87.Google Scholar
(1934) Evaporation at high altitudes and latitudes. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 15(2), 326–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1997) Snow surface energy exchanges and snowmelt at a continental midlatitude alpine site. Water Resour. Res., 33(4), 689–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1978) A case study of the measurement of snowfall by radar: an assessment of accuracy. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 104, 615–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1976) Numerical simulation of the orographically induced precipitation distribution for use in hydrologic analysis. J. appl. Met., 15, 1241–51.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1935) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Schneedeckenverhältnisse. Gerlands Beitr. Geophys., 45, 225–36.Google Scholar
, and (2002) The role of small-scale orographic features in the spatial distribution of precipitation. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 128, 75–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1961) Studies in catchment hydrology in the Australian Alps, IV. Interception by trees of rain, cloud and fog. Canberra: C.S.I.R.O., Australia Division of Plant Industry, Technical Paper 16.
, et al. (1983) A long-lived mesoscale convective complex. Part I: The mountain-generated component. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 1893–918.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1994) A statistical-topographic model for mapping climatological precipitation over mountainous terrain. J. appl. Met., 33, 140–58.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1971) A simple method for computing the variation of annual precipitation over mountainous terrain. Boundary-Layer Met., 2, 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2006) Fractal distribution of snow depth from lidar data. J. Hydromet., 7, 285–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005) The contribution of condensation to the water cycle under high-mountain conditions. Hydrol. Processes, 19, 2419–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Jong, C., Mundelius, M. and Migala, K. (2005) Comparison of evapotranspiration and condensation measurements between the Giant Mountains and the Alps. In , and (eds), Climate and Hydrology in Mountain Areas. New York: J. Wiley and Sons, pp. 161–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1951) Zur Verdunstung der Schneedecke. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 3, 47–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2002) Large-scale mass balance effects of blowing snow and surface sublimation. J. Geophys. Res., 107 (D23), 4679 ACL 8-1–8-17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2004) Winter orographic precipitation rates in the Sierra Nevada – large-scale atmospheric circulations and hydrologic consequences. J. Hydromet., 5, 1102–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1955) Höchstlasten der Nebelfrostablagerungen am Hochspannungsleitungen im Gebirge. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 7, 84–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005) The influence of topographic co-variables on the spatial variability of precipitation over small regions of complex terrain. Int. J. Climatol., 25(3), 351–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1947) Meteorological conditions in heavy orographic rainfall in the British Isles. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 73, 11–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1970) Methode de l'étude de la dècroissance des temperatures en montagne de latitude moyenne: exemple des Alpes françaises du sud. Rev. Géog. Alp., 58, 453–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1988) Slope and free air temperatures in the Inn valley. Met. Atmos. Phys., 39, 25–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1980) Redistribution of snow in the mountains under the effect of heavy snow storms. Cold Regions Sci. Technol., 3, 287–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1989) Spatial and temporal variation of net snow accumulation in a small alpine watershed, Emerald Lake basin, Sierra Nevada, California. Ann. Glaciol., 13, 56–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1977) Methods for estimating areal precipitation in mountainous areas. Report 77–13. Goleta, CA: North American Weather Consultants (for National Weather Service, NOAA-77-111506) (NTIS:PB-276 140/IGA).
and (1962) The development of quantitative relationships between orographic precipitation and air-mass parameters for use in forecasting and cloud seeding evaluation. J. appl. Met., 1, 218–28.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2005) Persistence of topographic controls on the spatial distribution of snow in rugged mountain terrain, Colorado, United States. Water Resour. Res., 41, W04014, 17 pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1887) Die vertikale Verteilung und die Maximalzone des Neiderschlags am Nordhange der bayrischen Alpen im Zeitraum November 1883 bis November 1885. Met. Zeit., 4, 55–69.Google Scholar
(2001) Spatial statistics of windflow and blowing-snow fluxes over complex topography. Boundary-Layer Met., 100, 131–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1999) A distributed model of blowing snow over complex terrain. Hydrol. Processes, 13 (14–15), 2423–38. Sublimation and blowing snow transport at six sites in the conterminous United States. Proc. 61st Annual Western Snow Conference (Portland, OR), pp. 15–26.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flenley, J. R. (1994) Cloud Forest, the Massenerhebung Effect, and Ultraviolet Insolation. In , and (eds), Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 150–5.Google Scholar
(1967) Uber die klimatologische Bedeutung der Kondensationshöhe im Gebirge. Die Erde, 98, 203–10.Google Scholar
(1969) Zum Klima und Wasserhaushalt des Hindukushs und benachtbaren Gebirge. Erdkunde, 23, 205–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1970) Comments on water budget investigations, especially in tropical and subtropical mountain regions. In Symposium on World Water Balance, pp. 251–62. IASH Publication, 93, Vol. 2. New York: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Flohn, H. (1974) Contribution to a comparative meteorology of mountain areas. In and (eds), Arctic and Alpine Environments. London: Methuen, pp. 55–71.Google Scholar
(1972) Weather Systems and Precipitation Characteristics over the Arctic Archipelago in the Summer of 1968. Inland Waters Directorate. Technical Report No. 16. Ottawa: Environment Canada.Google Scholar
(1977) Representativeness of precipitation measurements in mountainous areas. Proceedings of the Joint AMS/SGBB/SSG Meeting on Mountain Meteorology and Biometeorology. Geneva: Blanc et Wittwer, pp. 61–77.Google Scholar
and (1983) Distribution of snowdrifts on ridge slopes: measurements and theoretical approximations. Ann. Glaciol., 4, 52–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1975) Estudio Agroclimatologico de la Zona Andina, Informe Technico. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
Fujita, T. (1967) Mesoscale aspects of orographic influences on flow and precipitation patterns. In and (eds), Proceedings of the Symposium on Mountain Meteorology, Atmospheric Science Paper No. 122. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University, pp. 131–46.Google Scholar
, and (1968) Aerial measurement of radiation temperatures over Mt. Fuji and Tokyo areas and their application to the determination of ground- and water-surface temperatures. J. appl. Met., 7, 801–16.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1935) Rate of precipitation from adiabatically ascending air. Mon. Weather Rev., 63, 291–4.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1966) Measurement and Estimation of Evaporation and Evapotranspiration. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization Technical Note No. 83.Google Scholar
(2005) Numerical modeling of blowing and drifting snow in Alpine terrain. J. Glaciol., 47(156), 97–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1965) The Climate near the Ground. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 417–18, 430–42, 453–4.Google Scholar
(1970) Fazovoe sostoyanie osadkov v gorakh v zavisimosti ot prizemnoy temperaturiy vozdukha (The phase condition of precipitation in mountains independence on surface air temperature). Met. i Gidrol., 30–4.Google Scholar
(ed.) (2000) The Glossary of Meteorology, 2nd edn. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society.Google Scholar
(1978) Calculated snowpack evaporation during chinooks along the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. J. appl. Met., 17, 1647–51.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golubev, V. S. (1986) On the problem of standard conditions for precipitation gauge installation. In (ed.), Proceedings, International Workshop on the Correction of Precipitation Measurements, Instruments and Observing Methods, Report no. 24 (WMO/TD no. 104). Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, pp. 57–9.Google Scholar
and (1989) Magnitude and sources of variation in albedo within an alpine tundra. Theoret. Appl. Climatol., 40, 50–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodison, B. E., Sevruk, B. and Klemm, S. (1989) WMO solid precipitation measurement intercomparison: objectives, methodology, analysis. In (ed.), Atmospheric Deposition, International Association of Hydrological Sciences, Publication No. 179. Wallingford, UK: IAHS Press, pp. 59–64.Google Scholar
, and (1998) WMO Solid Precipitation Intercomparison, WMO/TD-872. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, 212 pp.Google Scholar
(2000) Geostatistical approaches for incorporating elevation into the spatial interpolation of rainfall. J. Hydrol., 228, 113–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1978) Spatial distribution of radiation on the Colorado Front Range. Climat. Bull., Montreal, 24, 1–14.Google Scholar
(1989) The climate of Niwot Ridge, Front Range, Colorado, USA. Arct. Alp. Res., 21, 380–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1991) Surface energy budgets over alpine tundra in summer, Niwot Range, Colorado Front Range. Mountain Res. Devel., 11, 339–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1993) Spatial energy budgets in alpine tundra. Theor. Appl. Clim., 46, 229–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, S. (1968) The orographic component in rainfall distribution patterns. In (ed.), Mélanges de Géographie. I. Géographie Physique et Géographie Humaine. Gembloux, Belgium: J. Duculot, S. A., pp. 234–52.Google Scholar
(1952a) Nebelniederschlag: Bedeutung und Erfassung einer Zusatz- komponente des Niederschlags, Berichte deutsch. Wetterdienst.-US Zone, 7(42), 30–4.Google Scholar
(1960) Ergebnisse mehrjähriger Messungen von Niederschlägen am Hang und im Gebirge. International Association of Scientific Hydrology Publication No. 53, 300–16.Google Scholar
and (1969) Nebelniederschlag im Hochgebirge. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 17, 201–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2005) Geostatistical mapping of mountain precipitation incorporating autosearched effects of terrain and climatic characteristics. J. Hydromet., 6, 1018–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1982) Distribution and stochastic generation of annual and monthly precipitation on a mountainous watershed in southwest Idaho. Water Resour. Bull., 18, 875–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. Simulations of snow distribution and hydrology in a mountain basin. Water Resour. Res., 35(8), 1587–604.CrossRef
(1967) Rainfall distribution and regime in central America. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 15, 201–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1978) Heat-budget measurements on the Quelccaya ice cap, Peruvian Andes. J. Glaciol., 20(82), 85–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1950) Klima und Wetter der Zugspitze. Berichte d. Deutschen Wetterdienstes in der US-Zone, 16.Google Scholar
(1968) Die Höhenstufe maximaler Niederschlagssummen in den Westalpen. Freiburger Geogr. Hefte, 7.Google Scholar
and (1998) Verification of the Rhea orographic-precipitation model. J.Amer. Water Assoc., 34, 1103–12.Google Scholar
and (1984) Estimation of the energy balance of the Dischma Valley. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biocl., B 34, 97–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
. (1979) Comments on “Use of mesoscale climatology in mountainous terrain to improve the spatial representation of mean monthly temperatures.”Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 352–3.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1981) Potential evapotranspiration in mountain geo-ecosystems of different altitudes and latitudes, Mountain Res. Devel., 1, 267–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1972) An operational technique of forecasting thunderstorms along the lee slope of a mountain range. J. appl. Met., 11, 1284–92.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1975) The methods of constructing climatic maps of various scales for mountainous and upland territories, exemplified by the maps prepared for southern Poland. Geog. Polonica, 31, 163–87.Google Scholar
(1983) The use of average annual rainfall to derive estimates of orographic enhancement of frontal rain over England and Wales for different wind directions. J. Climatol., 3, 113–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1981) Radar and raingauge observations of orographic rain over south Wales. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 107, 643–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1881) The meteorology of the North-West Himalaya. Ind. Met. Mem., Calcutta, 1(VI), 377–429.Google Scholar
Hindman, E. E. (1986a) An atmospheric water balance over a mountain barrier. In (ed.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau and Mountain Meteorology. Beijing: Science Press, pp. 580–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1986b) Characteristics of supercooled liquid water in clouds at mountaintop sites in the Colorado Rockies. J. Clim. Appl. Met., 25, 1271–9.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1970) The Influence of Meteorological Parameters on the Distribution of Precipitation across Central Colorado Mountains. Atmospheric Science Paper No. 163. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University.Google Scholar
Hjermstad, L. M. (1975) Final Comprehensive Operations Report 1970–75 Season. Colorado River Basin Pilot Project, EG & G (Report AL-1200), Albuquerque, New Mexico.
(1975) The nature of winter clouds and precipitation in the Cascade Mountains and their modification by artificial seeding. Pt. 1. Natural conditions, J. appl. Met., 14, 783–804.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1978) Organization and structure of clouds and precipitation on the mesoscale and microscale in cyclonic storms. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 16, 741–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1973) A theoretical study of the flow of air and fallout of solid precipitation over mountainous terrain. Pt. II: Microphysics. J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 813–23.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1975) The dynamical and microphysical structure of an occluded frontal system and its modification by orography. J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 1542–62.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1957) Investigations of Mountain Lee Waves and the Air Flow over the Sierra Nevada, Final Report, Contract AF19-(604)-728. Los Angeles: Meteorology Department, University of California.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1999) Sublimation from a seasonal snowpack at a continental, mid-latitude alpine site. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 1781–97.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoover, M. D. and Leaf, C. E. (1967) Process and significance of interception in Colorado subalpine forest. In and (eds), Symposium on Forest Hydrology. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 213–24.Google Scholar
(1934) Water losses in high latitudes and at high elevations. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 15(2), 351–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1963) Modification of convective systems by terrain with local relief of several hundred metres. Zeit. angew. Math. Phys., 14, 410–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1979) A model for orographic precipitation in the north-central Great Basin. Mon. Weather Rev., 107, 1462–75.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005) Turbulence as a mechanism for orographic precipitation enhancement. J. Atmos. Sci., 62(10), 3599–623.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1965) Precipitation distribution round a windy mountain peak. J. Geophys. Res., 70, 3271–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1966) A comparison of evaporation from snow and soil surfaces. Bull. Int. Ass. Sci. Hydrol., 11, 34–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1968) An analysis of the effect of topography on rainfall in the Taieri catchment. Otago. Earth Sci. J., 2, 51–68.Google Scholar
and (1989) Evapotranspiration from the alpine tundra of Colorado, U.S.A. Arct. Alp. Res., 21, 71–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1975) An improved recording gage for blowing snow. Water Resour. Res., 11, 674–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005) Modification of precipitation by coastal orography in storms crossing northern California. Mon. Wea. Rev., 133(11), 3110–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1969) Vertical Velocities induced by Smoothed Topography for Ontario and their Use in Areal Forecasting. Meteorological Branch, Technical Memorandum 728. Toronto: Department of Transport.Google Scholar
(1861) On the deficiency of rain in an elevated rain gauge as caused by wind, London. Edinburgh and Dublin Phil. Mag., 22, 421–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2003) Cloud timescales and orographic precipitation. J. Atmos. Sci., 60(13), 1543–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juvik, J. O. and Ekern, P. C. (1978) A climatology of mountain fog on Mauna Loa, Hawaii Island, University of Hawaii. Water Resour. Res. Cen. Tech. Rep. no. 118.
and (1991) Hydrologic characteristics and balance of an alpine basin in the Sierra Nevada. Water Resour. Res., 27, 1553–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005) Observations and modeling of banded orographic precipitation. J. Atmos, Sci., 62(5), 1463–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1961) Die warme Hangzone. Neue anschauungen zur nachtlichen Kaltluft- schichtung in Tälern und an Hängen. Zeit. Met., 15, 151–71.Google Scholar
and (1968) Untersuchungen der regionalen Unterschiede im Auftreten von Nebelfrost, Zeit. Met., 20, 148–60.Google Scholar
and (1978) An Alpine vegetation map of Niwot Ridge, Colorado. Arct. Alp. Res., 10, 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1960) Zur Frage der Nebelfrostablagerungen im Gebirge. Studia Geophys. Geodet., 4, 69–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (1997) Energy balance and evapotranspiration in a high mountain area during summer. J. appl. Met., 36, 966–73.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1971) Messungen zum Wärmehaushalt in den äquatorialen Anden. Ann. Met., N.F. 5, 99–102.Google Scholar
, et al. (2000) A catchment-based approach to modeling land surface processes in a general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res., 105(D20), 24 809–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1971) A contribution to the heat and radiation budget in the Himalayas. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., A 20, 175–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1962) The water balance of small drainage basins during the period of high water. Soviet Hydrol., 1, 362–411.Google Scholar
and (2006) Orographic enhancement of precipitation over low mountain ranges, Part I. Model formulation and idealized simulations. J. Appl. Met. Climatol., 45, 1025–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1973) A radar climatology of summertime convective clouds in the Black Hills. J. appl. Met., 12, 359–73.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1965) Icing and Snow Accretion on Electric Wires, CRREL Research Report 123. Hanover, NH: US Army.Google Scholar
(1967) Nekotorye resultaty nablyudeniy nad ispareniem s poverkhnosti snezhnogo pokrova v vysokogornoy zone tsentralnogo Kavkaza (Some results of observations on evaporation over snow surfaces in the high mountain zone of the Central Caucasus 1). Trudy Vysokogornyi Geofiz. Inst., 12, 40–6.Google Scholar
(1970) Methods for the estimation of evaporation from land applied in the USSR. Symposium on World Water Balance, Vol. 1, International Association of Scientific Hydrology Publication No. 92. Paris: UNESCO, pp. 225–31.Google Scholar
(1955) Two-way relationships between the snow or ice limit and 1000–500 mb thickness in the overlying atmosphere. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 81, 172–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1981) Is evaporation an important component in high alpine hydrology, Nordic Hydrol., 12, 217–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lang, H. (1985) Höhenabhängigkeit der Niederschläge. In (ed.), Die Niederschlag in der Schweiz (Berträge zur Geologie der Schweiz – Hydrologie, No. 31). Bern: Kummerly and Frey, pp. 149–57.Google Scholar
(1971) Shielding Precipitation Gages from Adverse Wind Effects with Snow Fences. Laramie: University of Wyoming, Water Resources Ser. no. 25.Google Scholar
(1975) Klimatische Grundzüge der Höhenstufung tropischer Gebirge. In Tagungsbericht und wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen. 40 Deutscher Geographentag, Innsbruck. Innsbruck: F. Steiner, pp. 76–90.Google Scholar
and (1976) Zur Berechnung der Schneeverdunstung auf dem Sonnblick, 72–73 Jahresber. des Sonnblick-Vereines für die Jahre 1974–1975. Vienna: Sonnblict-Verein, pp. 3–10.Google Scholar
(1976a) Weltweite Typen der Höhenabhängigkeit des Niederschlags. Wetter u. Leben, 28, 80–90.Google Scholar
(1976b) Methoden zur Weltklimatologie der Hydrometeore. Der Anteil des festen Niederschlags am Gesamtniederschlag. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 24, 129–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1977) Reif und Kondensation auf Schnee und die wahre Zahl der Tage mit Reif. Wetter u. Leben, 29, 175–80.Google Scholar
(1978a) Eine neue Analyse von Hilding Köhler's Messungen der Schneeverdunstung auf dem Haldde-Observatorium aus dem Winter 1920/21. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 26, 193–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1978b) Typen der Höhenabhängigkeit des Niederschlags bei verschiedenen Witterungslagen im Sonnblick Gebiet. Arbeiten, Zentralanst. für Met. Geodynam. (Vienna), 32(95), 1–6.Google Scholar
(1975) The energy balance of a mid-latitude alpine site during the growing season, 1973. Arct. Alp. Res. 7, 301–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1974) A mechanical balance-type lysimeter for use in remote environments. Agric. Met., 13, 253–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1978) A comparison of the radiation and energy balance during the growing season for arctic and alpine tundra. Arct. Alp. Res., 10, 665–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1997) Estimates of threshold wind speeds for snow transport using meteorological data. J. appl. Met., 36(3), 205–13.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1941) Analysis of high rates of snow-melting. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 22(1), 195–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1958) Correlation of rainfall intensity and topography in northern California. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 39, 15–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005) Assessing the effect of integrating elevation data into the estimation of monthly precipitation in Great Britain. J. Hydrol., 308, 128–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1962) Evaporation at high elevations in California. Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. J. Irrig. Drainage Div., 3172, 33–54.Google Scholar
and (2007) Surface temperature patterns in complex terrain: Daily variations and long-term changes in the central Sierra Nevada, California. J. Geophys. Res., 112(D11) D11124, 1–15.Google Scholar
(2006) Variation of surface air temperature in complex terrain. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 1481–93.Google Scholar
Marcus, M. G. and Brazel, A. J. (1974) Solar radiation measurements at 5365 meters, Mt. Logan, Yukon. In and (eds), Icefield Ranges Research Project, Scientific Results, Vol. 4. New York: American Geographical Society, pp. 117–19.Google Scholar
and (1970) Summertime observations at the 5360 meter level, Mount Logan, Yukon, 1968–1969. Arct. Alp. Res., 2, 103–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (2002) Temporal and spatial variations of fog in the western Sudety Mts., Poland. Atmos. Res., 64(1–4), 19–28.Google Scholar
Martinec, J. (1985) Korrektur der Niederschlagsdaten durch Schneemessungen. In (ed.), Die Niederschlag in der Schweiz (Beiträge zur Geologie der Schweiz-Hydrologie no. 31). Berne: Kummerly and Frey, pp. 77–96.Google Scholar
Martinec, J. (1987) Importance and effects of seasonal snow cover. In , and (eds), Large Scale Effects of Seasonal Snow Cover. IAHS Publ. no. 166. Wallingford, UK: International Association of Hydrological Science, pp. 107–20.Google Scholar
(1989) Hour-to-hour snowmelt rates and lysimeter outflow during an entire ablation period. Snow Cover and Glacier Variations. Wallingford, UK: JAHS.Google Scholar
(1959) Some hydrologic aspects of alpine snowfields under summer conditions. J. Geophys. Res., 64, 451–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
., (1960) Moisture exchange between the atmosphere and alpine snow surfaces under summer conditions. J. Met., 17, 227–31.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
. (1973) Snow-fence experiments in alpine areas. J. Glaciol., 12(65), 291–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1974) An airflow case study over the San Juan Mountains of Colorado. J. appl. Met., 13, 450–8.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1980) Winter storms over the San Juan Mountains. Part I. Dynamical processes. J. appl. Met., 19, 913–26.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1987) Deep orographic storms over the Sierra Nevada. Part II. The precipitation process. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 174–85.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1965) Tables for the rapid computation of the Penman estimate of evaporation. E. Afr. Agric. Forest J., 30, 286–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1976) Diagnosing and predicting surface temperature in mountainous terrain. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104, 1044–51.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (2005) Cross-barrier flow during orographic precipitation events: Results from MAP and IMPROVE. J. Atmos. Sci., 62(10), 3580–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1974) Snow-Air Interactions and Management of Mountain Watershed Snowpack, Completion Report Serial No. 57. Fort Collins, CO: Environmental Research Center, Colorado State University.Google Scholar
Meister, R. (1987) Wind systems and snow transport in alpine topography. In and (eds), Avalanche Formation, Movement and Effects, IAHS. Publication 162. Wallingford, UK: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, pp. 265–7.Google Scholar
(1965) Blowing Snow (Cold Regions Science and Engineering. Part III, Section A3c). Hanover, NH: US Army, Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory.Google Scholar
and (1969) Trade wind inversion at the slope of Mauna Loa. J. appl. Met., 8, 213–19.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2002) Rime in the Giant Mountains (the Sudetes). Poland. Atmos. Res., 64(1–4), 63–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1971) Description of snow transport and snow deposition in the European USSR. Soviet Hydrol., 10, 342–8.Google Scholar
, and (1971) Snowfall and Snow Transport during Snowstorms over the USSR. Jerusalem: Israel Program of Scientific Translation.Google Scholar
(1955) Snow Cover and Climate in the Sierra Nevada, California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, Publ. in Geog., 11.Google Scholar
(1962) Snow in the trees – where does it go? In Proceedings of the 30th Annual Western Snow Conference, pp. 21–9.Google Scholar
(1972) Physiographically adjusted precipitation-frequency maps. In Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. 2. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization no. 326, pp. 264–77.Google Scholar
Miller, J. F. (1982) Precipitation evaluation in hydrology. In (ed.), Engineering Meteorology. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 371–428.Google Scholar
, and (2001) Geostatistical analysis of orographic rainbands. J. appl. Met., 40, 1835–54.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1996) Dynamics interactions between observed nocturnal drainage winds and cold air lake. J. Met. Soc. Japan, 74, 247–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1984) Zum Strahlungshaushalt im Alpenraum. Mitteilungen der Versuchsanstalt fuer Wasserbau, Hydrologie und Glaziologie No. 71. Zurich: ETH, 167 pp.Google Scholar
(1952) Rain and snow in relation to the 1000–700 mb and 1000–500 mb thickness and the freezing level. Met. Mag., 81, 5–8.Google Scholar
(1962) Airflow on the windward side of a ridge. J. Geophys. Res., 67, 4267–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1975) The distribution of rainfall over subcatchments of the River Dee as a function of synoptic type. Met. Mag., 104, 208–17.Google Scholar
, and (1978) Numerical calculation of airflow and cloud during winter storm conditions in the Colorado Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountains. In Proceedings of the Conference on Sierra Nevada Meteorology. Boston, MA: American Meteorological Society, pp. 126–32.Google Scholar
(1878) On the determination of the true rainfall in elevated gages. Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci., 27, 103–8.Google Scholar
and (1988) Rainfall enhancement over the Hawaiian Islands. J. Climate, 1, 837–9.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1970) Uber die thermische Temperaturschichtung in Bergtälern. Acta Climat., 9, 33–47.Google Scholar
(1982) Regional water balance on the arctic tundra in summer. Water Resour. Res., 18, 301–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1991) New precipitation and accumulation maps for Greenland. J. Glaciol., 37(125), 140–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1965a) A numerical study on the initiation of cumulus clouds over mountainous terrain. J. Atmos. Sci., 22, 684–99.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1965b) A photogrammetric study of the initiation of cumulus clouds over mountainous terrain. J. Atmos. Sci., 22, 700–9.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1968) Ambient wind effects on the initiation and development of cumulus clouds over mountains. J. Atmos. Sci., 25, 385–403.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1979) An approach to calculating evaporation rates at remote sites. Nordic Hydrol., 10, 41–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1960) “Fog drip” from coastal stratus, with special reference to California. Weather, 15, 58–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peak, G. W. (1963) Snow pack evaporation factors. In Proceedings of the 31st Annual Western Snow Conference, pp. 20–7.
(1964) The little used third dimension. In Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Western Snow Conf. (Nelson, British Columbia), pp. 33–40.Google Scholar
(1972a) Discussion of problems in measuring precipitation in mountainous Areas. In Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. I. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization No. 326, pp. 5–16.Google Scholar
(1972b) Relation of orographic precipitation patterns to meteorological parameters. In Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. II. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization No. 326, pp. 234–42.Google Scholar
and (1962) An approach to the development of isohyetal maps for mountainous areas. J. Geophys. Res., 67, 681–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1963) Evaporation Rates in Mountainous Terrain. International Association of Scientific Hydrology, Publ. No. 62. Gentbrugge, Belgium: IASH, pp. 267–78.Google Scholar
(1963) Vegetation and Hydrology. Commonwealth Bureau of Soils Technical Communication 53. Farnham Royal, Bucks: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux.Google Scholar
, and (1992) A comparison of geostatistical procedures for spatial analysis of precipitation in mountainous terrain. Agric. Forest Met., 58, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1956) Icing of overhead high-voltage power lines in the Grampians. Met. Mag., 85, 376–8.Google Scholar
and (1977) Use of mesoscale climatology in mountainous terrain to improve the spatial representation of mean monthly temperatures. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 108–12.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1978) The energy balance in the mountains of Croatia. Arbeiten, Zentralanst. Met. Geodynam., Vienna, 31(9), 1–9, 16.Google Scholar
(1901) The theory of the formation of precipitation on mountain slopes. Mon. Weather Rev., 29, 152–9, 306–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1959) Contribution à la connaissance de la distribution altimétrique de la durée de l'enneigement dans les Alpes françaises du nord. Ber. dtsch. Wetterd., 54, 134–49.Google Scholar
and (1999) Turbulent fluxes during blowing snow: Field tests of model sublimation predictions. Hydrol. Processes, 13, 2963–75.3.0.CO;2-9>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
., and (1993) Prairie blowing snow model: characteristics, validation, operation. J. Hydrol., 144(1–4), 165–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1972) On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters. Mon. Wea. Rev., 100, 81–92.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1948) The problem of airflow over mountains: a summary of theoretical studies. Bull. Am. Met. Soc., 29, 16–26.Google Scholar
and (1977) Numerical simulation of cold easterly circulations over the Canadian Western Plains using a mesoscale boundary-layer model. Boundary-Layer Met., 11, 307–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1968) Deposition and Erosion of Snow by the Wind. CRREL Research Report 20, Hanover, NH: US Army, Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory.Google Scholar
(1981) Automated system for collecting snow and related hydrological data in mountains of the western United States. Hydrol. Sci. Bull., 26, 83–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1979) A re-analysis of the Wolf Creek cloud seeding experiment. J. appl. Met., 18, 579–85.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (1989) Average areal water equivalent of snow in a mountain basin using microwave and visible satellite data. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing, 27, 740–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2007) Hydrological aspects of the Mesoscale Alpine Programme; Findings from field experiments and simulations. Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 133(625), 867–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (1986) The characteristics and distribution of cloud water over the mountains of northern Colorado during winter-time storms. Part I. Temporal variations. J. Clim. Appl. Met., 25, 468–88.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1980) Mountain-induced convection under fair weather conditions. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2693–706.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1972) Winter precipitation gauge catch in windy mountainous areas. In Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. I. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization No. 326, pp. 13–26.Google Scholar
and (1974) Evaporation from snowdrifts under oasis conditions. In Advanced Concepts and Techniques, The Study of Snow and Ice Resources. Washington, DC: National Academy Science, pp. 99–107.Google Scholar
(1973) The influence of slope aspect on precipitation receipt. Weather, 28, 490–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1970) On the role of orography in the precipitation regime of Alberta. Albertan Geographer, 6, 45–58.Google Scholar
and (1970) Control of vertical transport of aerosols between 700 and 3000 metres by lapse rate and fine structure of temperature. J. Geophys. Res., 75, 3065–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1978) Orographic Precipitation Model for Hydrometeorological Use, Atmospheric Science Paper No. 287. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University.
and (1974) Topographic influences on snowfall patterns in mountainous terrain. In Advanced Concepts and Techniques in the Study of Snow and Ice Resources. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science, pp. 182–92.Google Scholar
, . and (1987) The diurnal variability of precipitation across the central Rockies and adjacent Great Plains. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115(6), 1161–72.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1967) The rainfall measurement problem. In Geochemistry, Precipitation, Evaporation, Soil-Moisture, Evaporation. IUGG General Assembly of Bern, pp. 215–30.Google Scholar
(2002) Modeling orographic precipitation over ice sheets: an assessment over Greenland. J. Glaciol., 48, 70–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rohrer, M. (1989) Determination of the transition air temperature from snow to rain and intensity of precipitation. In (ed.), Precipitation Measurement, WMO/IAHS/ETH Workshop on Precipitation Measurements. Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, pp. 475–82.Google Scholar
, et al. (2004) Turbulence structure and exchange processes in an alpine valley, The Riviera project. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 85(9), 1367–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1979) Vergleichende Untersuchungen der Energiebilanz in Hochgebirge. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., A 28, 211–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2007) Lessons on orographic precipitation from the Mesoscale Alpine Programme. Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 133(625), 811–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1988) New England Mountain Icing Climatology, CRREL Report 88–12. Hanover, NH: US Army.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1956) Evaporation from Snow in the Ergeni District. Selected Articles on Snow and Snow Evaporation. Jerusalem: Israel Program of Science Translations, pp. 14–21.Google Scholar
(1976) Décroissance de températures en montagne de latitude moyenne: exemple des Alpes françaises du Nord. Rev. Géog. Alp., 64, 483–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de C. S. (1918) The relation of rainfall to configuration. Brit. Rainfall, 1918, 40–56.Google Scholar
(1972) Management of windblown alpine snows. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University.
(1966) A dynamical model of orographic rainfall. Mon. Weather Rev., 94, 555–72.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1967) Some modifications in a dynamical model of orographic rainfall. Mon. Weather Rev., 95, 673–84.2.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (2005) Diurnal cycle of convective instability around the central mountains in Japan during the warm season. J. Atmos. Sci., 62(5), 1626–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1956) The physical and dynamical problems of orographic rain. Weather, 11, 375–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1967) Relations between topography and annual precipitation in western Oregon and Washington. Water Resour. Res., 3, 707–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1972) Sublimation of wind-transported snow – a model, USDA, Forest Service Research Paper RM-90. Fort Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station.
(1977) A system that measures blowing snow. USDA, Forest Service Research Paper RM-194. Fort Collins, CO: Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station.
(1984) Transport rate of drifting snow and the mean wind speed profile. Boundary-Layer Met., 34, 213–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schüepp, M. (1963) Bewölkung und Nebel. Klimatologie der Schweiz, Vol. 4, part H. Supplement, Annalen, Schweizerischen Meteorologischen Zentralanstalt, (Annual 1962), 68 pp.
and (2004) Snowmelt and sublimation: Field experiments and modelling in the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco. Hydrol Earth System Sci., 8, 1076–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1955) The growth of cumulus over mountains. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., A 8, 25–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1972a) Precipitation measurements by means of storage gauges with stereo and horizontal orifices in the Baye de Montreux watershed. In Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. 1. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization No. 326, pp. 86–95.Google Scholar
(1972b) Evaporation losses from storage gauges. In Distribution of Precipitation in Mountainous Areas, Vol. 1. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization No. 326, pp. 96–102.Google Scholar
(1974) The use of stereo, horizontal and ground level orifice gages to determine a rainfall-elevation relationship. Water Resour. Res., 10, 1138–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1983) Correction of measured precipitation in the Alps using the water equivalent of new snow. Nordic Hydrol., 14, 49–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sevruk, B. (1985) Schneeanteil am Monatsniederschlag. In (ed.), Die Niederschlag in der Schweiz (Beiträge zur Geologie der Schweiz – Hydrologie No. 31). Bern: Kummerly and Frey, pp. 127–37.Google Scholar
Sevruk, B. (1986a) Correction of precipitation measurements. In (ed.), Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Correction of Precipitation Measurements, Instruments and Observing Methods, Report No. 24 (WMO/TD No. 104). Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, pp. 13–23.Google Scholar
Sevruk, B. (1986b) Correction of precipitation measurements: Swiss experience. In (ed.), Precipitation Measurement. Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, pp. 187–93.Google Scholar
(ed.) (1989) Precipitation measurement. WMO/IAHS/ETH Workshop on Precipitation Measurement. Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Sevruk, B. and Klemm, S. (1989) Types of standard precipitation gauges. In (ed.), Precipitation Measurement. Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, pp. 227–32.Google Scholar
, and (2005) On the horizontal scale of elevation dependence of Australian monthly precipitation. J. appl. Met., 44, 1850–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2004) Glacier distribution and climate in the Canadian Rockies. Arct. Antarct. Alp Res., 36(2), 272–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1987) Measurements of surface energy budgets in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. J. Geophys. Res., 92(D4), 445–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005) Analysis of the heavy orographic rainfall over North Wales, 3 and 4 February 2004. Weather, 60, 31–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, B. A. (1960) The effect of a mountain on convection. In (ed.), Cumulus Dynamics. New York: Pergamon Press, pp. 4–27.Google Scholar
, and (1984) Duration and extent of snow cover in the Snowy Mountains and a comparison with Switzerland. Search, 15, 327–31.Google Scholar
(1970) Evaporation from Snow and Evaporation Retardation by Monomolecular Films, Special Rep. 130. Hanover, NH: Cold Regions Research Engineering Laboratory, US Army.Google Scholar
(1979) The influence of mountains on the atmosphere. Adv. Geophys., 21, 87–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1982) A differential advection model of orographic rain. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 306–9.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1985) Comment on “Interaction of low-level flow with the Western Ghat mountains and offshore convection in the summer monsoon” (Reply D. R. Durran and R. L. Grossman). Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 2176–81.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2003) A linear time-delay model of orographic precipitation. J. Hydrol., 282, 2–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. B. and Lin, Y.-L. (1983) Orographic rain on the Western Ghats. In , and (eds), Proceedings of the First Sino-American Workshop on Mountain Meteorology. Beijing: Science Press, pp. 71–94.Google Scholar
and (2004) A linear theory of orographic precipitation. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 1377–91.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (2003) Orographic precipitation and airmass transformation; An Alpine example. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 129, 433–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (2005) Orographic precipitation and Oregon's climate transition. J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 177–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1970) Influence of topography and exposure on airstream rainfall in Scotland. Weather, 25, 379–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1964) On the transportation of short duration rainfall intensity data in mountainous regions. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 13, 438–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1947) Determination of the effect of topography on precipitation. Trans. Am. Geophys. Un., 28, 285–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1968) Nebelfrostablagerungen an Freileitungen unter Gebirgsbedingungen. Zeit. Met., 20, 161–4.Google Scholar
and (1981) Evapotranspiration at two mountain sites during the vegetation period. Nordic Hydrol., 12, 207–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1948) Die Schneehohen in den Ostalpen und die Bedeutung der winterlichen Temperaturinversion. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 1, 63–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1967) Methods of evaluation and drawing of climatic maps in mountainous countries. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 15, 329–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1985) Precipitation types in winter storms. Pure Appl. Geophys., 123, 597–609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1978) On the pressure dependence of the wind function in Dalton's and Penman's evaporation equations. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., A 27, 147–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1968) Precipitation formation in a mountainous coast region. Tellus, 20, 239–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1975) Gamma – the psychrometer non-constant. J. appl. Met., 14, 1397–8.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2000) Measuring the Natural Environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 365 pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1965) Systematic errors of measurements of atmospheric precipitation. Soviet Hydrol., 4, 500–4.Google Scholar
(1977) Reconstruction of the morphology, dynamics, and thermal characteristics of the Laurentide ice sheet at its maximum. Arct. Alp. Res., 9, 21–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1975a) Predicting profiles of snowdrifts in topographic catchments. In Proceedings of the 43rd Western Snow Conference, pp. 87–97.Google Scholar
(1975b) Estimating the transport and evaporation of blowing snow. In Snow Management on the Great Plains, Publication 73. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska, Agriculture Experimental Station, pp. 85–104.Google Scholar
(1980) Vertical profile and horizontal increase of drift-snow transport. J. Glaciol., 26(94), 481–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1989) Canopy structure and light climate of different alpine plant communities: analysis by means of a model. Theoret. Appl. Climatol., 40, 81–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1978) Ice depositions in Romanian mountainous regions. Veröff, Schweiz. Met. Zentralanstalt, Zurich, 40, 308–12.Google Scholar
(1988) Numerical simulation of snow transport, deposition and redistribution. In Proceedings of the Western Snow Conference 56th Annual Meeting, 93–103.Google Scholar
and (1977) On Penman's equation for estimating regional evapotranspiration. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 103, 345–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1975) Energy budgets for three small plots – substantiation of Priestley and Taylor's large-scale evaporation parameter. J. appl. Met., 14, 1399–401.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1997) Generating surfaces of daily meteorological variables over large regions of complex terrain. J. Hydrol., 190, 214–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1988) Modeling heavy precipitation in complex terrain. Met. Atmos. Phys., 39, 119–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, H. (1985) Nebelniederschlag. In (ed.), Die Niederschlag in der Schweiz. (Beiträge zur Geologie der Schweiz – Hydrologie, No. 31). Bern: Kummerly and Frey, pp. 77–96.Google Scholar
(1973) Fog precipitation in the cloud forests of eastern Mexico. BioScience, 23, 96–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1966) Teplovoy Balans Poverkhnosti Vysokogornykh Lednikov v Letnii Period (Heat Balance of the Surface of Mountain Glaciers in Summer). Moscow: Nauka.Google Scholar
(1996) Zur raumzeitlichen Dynamik von Schneefall und Ausaperung in Bereich des südlichen Altiplano. Geographica Bernensia (University of Bern), G45, 118 pp.Google Scholar
(1930) Uber die Feinstruktur des Temperaturgradienten längs Berghängen. Zeit. Geophys., 6, 310–18.Google Scholar
(1937) Gibt es im Gebirge eine Hôhenzone maximalen Niederschlages? Gerlands Beitr. Geophys., 50, 150–5.Google Scholar
(1955) Die meteorologischen Bedingungen für Nebelfrostablagerungen am Hochspannungsleitungen im Gebirge. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., B 7, 74–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1959) Schnee und Bodenfrost als Standortsfaktoren am Grossen Falkenstein. Forstwiss. Centralblatt., 78, 98–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1961) A Synoptic Climatology for Parts of the Western Cordillera. Arctic Meteorology Research Group, Published in Met. No. 35. Montreal: McGill University.Google Scholar
(1979) Zur Bildung, Verteilung und Vorhersage winterlicher Nebel im Querschnitt Jura-Alpen. Geographica Bernensia, G. 7.Google Scholar
and (1971) New methods of measuring water equivalent of snow pack for automatic recording at remote mountain locations. J. Hydrol., 13, 201–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (1997) Horizontal convective rolls: Determining the environmental conditions supporting their existence and characteristics. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 505–26.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1969) Klimatologische Regeln zur Vertikalverteilung der Niederschlage in Tropengebirgen. Die Erde, 100, 287–306.Google Scholar
and (1973) Heat balance investigations in an arctic mountainous area in northern Alaska. J. appl. Met., 12, 955–62.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1959) Snow evaporation and condensation. In Proceedings of the 27th Annual Meeting, Western Snow Conference, pp. 66–74.Google Scholar
(1962) Snow evaporation from a forested watershed in the central Sierra Nevada. J. Forest., 60, 481–4.Google Scholar
, et al. (2004) Comparison of vertical sounding and sidewall air temperature measurements in a small alpine basin. J. appl. Met., 43(11), 1635–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1977) WATBUG: A FORTRAN IV algorithm for calculating the climatic water budget. Newark, DE: Water Resources Center, University of Delaware.
(1978) On orographic precipitation. In Climatic Networks: Proceedings of the Workshop and Annual Meeting of the Alberta Climatological Association. Inform. Rep., NOR-X-209. Edmonton, Alberta: Fisheries and Environment Canada, Northern Forest Research Centre, pp. 82–121.Google Scholar
, et al. (2005) Microphysical processes and synergistic interactions between frontal and orographic forcing of precipitation during the 13 December 2001 IMPROVE-2 event over the Oregon Cascades. J. Atmos. Sci., 62(10), 3493–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Meteorological Organization (1956) International Cloud Atlas, (abridged). Geneva: World Meteorological Organization.
World Meteorological Organization (1975) Manual on the Observation of Clouds and Other Meteors: International Cloud Atlas, Vol. I. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, No. 407.
World Meteorological Organization (1984) Guide to Hydrological Practices, Vol. 1. Data Acquisition and Processing (4th edn). Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, No. 168.
World Meteorological Organization (1987) International Cloud Atlas, Vol. 2. Plates. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization, No. 407, 212 pp.
, et al. (2000) An evaluation of the Wyoming gauge system for snowfall measurement. Water Resour. Res., 36(9), 2665–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (2001) Compatibility evaluation of national precipitation measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 106(D2), 1481–91,CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1975) Climate in a Small Area: An Introduction to Local Meteorology. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 549 pp; pp. 429–34.Google Scholar
(1984) Thermal belt and cold air drainage on the mountain slope and cold air lake in the basin at quiet, clear night. Geojournal, 8, 23–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1974) A numerical simulation of wintertime orographic precipitation. J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1735–48; 1749–67.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005a) The impact of lee-side stratification on the spatial distribution of orographic precipitation. Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 131, 1075–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(2005b) Dynamical aspects of winter-time cold pools in an Alpine valley system. Mon. Wea. Rev., 133(9), 2721–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, et al. (2006) Using digital cloud photogrammmetry to characterize the onset and transition from shallow to deep convection over orography. Mon. Wea. Rev., 134(9), 2527–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar