Understanding the movement ecology of threatened species is fundamental to improving management and conservation actions for their protection, mainly during the pre-adult stage and particularly when a species is subject to population reinforcement or reintroduction projects. An example is the case of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus on the Iberian Peninsula, an endangered species that has been reintroduced in different regions during the last two decades. Here, we explore differences between the spatial ecology of reintroduced pre-adult Cinereous Vultures, according to age-class, sex, and season (breeding and non-breeding). We used GPS-tag data from 51 pre-adult individuals reintroduced into Catalonia (north-east Spain) to describe their use of space, i.e. home-range size, core area, and minimum convex polygon (MCP) and movement patterns, i.e. cumulative distance, maximum displacement, maximum daily dispersal, and maximum annual dispersal. Our study showed significant variation in the use of space and movement patterns among pre-adult birds and the influences of age, sex, and season. Age was the most influential factor, determining range areas and movement patterns. Similar to other vulture species, home range and core areas increase with age, with subadult vultures exhibiting larger ranges than young first year, juveniles, and immature birds, but the MCP measures were larger for juveniles. Movement patterns were also influenced by age-class, with juveniles making longer movements, followed by immatures and subadults (with similar values), and shorter movements for birds during their first year of life. Overall, males made shorter movements and explored smaller foraging areas than females. Season had an important effect on movement patterns, and the daily and dispersal movements were longer during the breeding period (February–August). Our findings fill a knowledge gap regarding the dispersal behaviours of Cinereous Vultures, information that will enable the improvement of management and conservation decisions.

Vultures are among the most threatened bird guilds on the planet and have a unique functional role within ecosystems. They are therefore subject to increasing research interest, calling for standardised study approaches and monitoring methods. The use of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UASs) is rapidly gaining popularity in ecological research due to technological advances, affordability, and accessibility. This study reviews the existing peer-reviewed publications and grey literature on the responses of European vultures and other comparable species to UASs, and summarises the types of UAS use, their potential disturbance effects on vultures, and the resulting inter- and intra-specific interactions. Our goal was to assess the potential effects of UASs and to provide practical recommendations to optimise their safe use in vulture conservation and research. We acknowledge the potential of UASs to increase research efficiency and reduce research effort, time, and financial cost. Owing to the absence of sufficient data on long-term disturbance effects, we advocate the precautionary principle and offer a set of species-tailored practical recommendations to limit the potential negative effects of UASs and maximise their value in conservation management. We urge that the physiological and long-term impacts on vulture reproduction are considered and call for standardised monitoring protocols and controls on UAS use. Our conclusions and recommendations are particularly aimed at researchers working on vulture conservation and restoration projects worldwide.

Recreational activities may have negative effects on wildlife, but there are very few studies specifically on the effects of free-flight activities (i.e., hang-gliders, paragliders and their powered derivatives) on wildlife. We review the existing scientific studies on this issue in order to identify the gaps in knowledge at the taxonomic-group level in order to develop guidelines to minimize the impacts of recreational free-flight on wildlife. We found that studies mainly concerned the effects on four ungulate species (chamois, red deer, roe deer and Alpine ibex) and, to a lesser extent, on raptors such as the golden eagle and two vulture species (bearded vulture and cinereous vulture). The studies have generally been carried out in high mountain areas (e.g., the European Alps). Data show that free-flight activities create disturbances and have negative effects on wildlife, resulting in increased energy expenditure, reduction of feeding time, abandonment of feeding areas, reduced breeding output, loss of body condition, increased predation risk and harm from flight accidents. However, the lack of studies on many species and areas, along with the small number of long-term studies, prevents proper assessment of the current situation regarding the impact of this activity on wildlife. We provide recommendations to improve the regulation of this activity.

Human–wildlife conflict is emerging as an important topic in conservation. Carnivores and birds of prey are responsible for most conflicts with livestock and game but since the mid 1990s a new conflict is emerging in south-west Europe: the presumed killing of livestock by griffon vultures Gyps fulvus. Lack of scientific data and magnification of the problem by the media are increasing alarm amongst the public, and political pressures to implement management decisions have not been based on scientific evidence. We compiled information on 1,793 complaints about attacks by griffon vultures on livestock, lodged with Spanish authorities from 1996 to 2010. Spain is home to the majority (95%) of griffon vultures and other scavengers in the European Union. Most of the cases occurred in areas of high livestock density, affected principally sheep (49%) and cows (31%), and were associated with spring birthing times (April–June). On average 69% of the complaints made annually were rejected because of a lack of evidence about whether the animal was alive before being eaten. The total economic cost of compensation was EUR 278,590 from 2004 to 2010. We discuss possible ways to mitigate this emerging human–wildlife conflict. These need to include the participation of livestock farmers, authorities, scientists and conservation groups.

Although most Old World vulture species are declining or threatened in Asia and Africa, in Europe healthy vulture populations still exist. However, recent application of sanitary legislation that has greatly reduced the availability of animal carcasses is now a concern for conservationists. Until now, no studies have been undertaken to determine long-term dietary shifts in these species in Europe, but such studies are essential to optimising the resources invested in conservation and to anticipating the ecological needs of the target species. Here, we present a first attempt to examine the dietary variation in the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus from the late Pleistocene to the present day. Medium-size wild ungulates such as southern chamois Rupicapra pyrenaica, Spanish ibex Capra pyrenaica, red deer Cervus elaphus and roe deer Capreolus capreolus dominate the diet during the Pleistocene supporting the hypothesis that Bearded Vulture distribution was largely determined by the presence of such species. On the contrary, domestic species, such as sheep Ovis aries and goat Capra hircus, are the most common taxa in the diet in modern and historic periods. The actual dependence of the species on livestock, along with a restrictive sanitary legislation, threaten the conservation of this and other endangered avian scavengers in Europe. This new paleobiological conservation perspective confirms that efforts to establish a self-sustaining Bearded Vulture population should be enhanced by the widespread availability of medium-sized wild ungulates and by the presence of extensive and traditional grazing practices.

From 2000–2008 we used transmitting video cameras to document the breeding biology of the endangered Bearded Vulture in the Pyrenees (NE Spain), focusing the study on sibling aggression. Our goals were to study the feasibility of rescuing second-hatched chicks for conservation purposes in this species that shows obligate brood reduction. The age at which the second chick died varied between 4 and 9 days (n = 5). Prey items delivered per hour were not related to the survival time of the second chick or the aggressiveness of the first-hatched chick towards their sibling. Although sibling aggression generally began on day 1 after hatching, in two nests supplemented with food, aggression was delayed until the second and third day after hatching and the second chick survived for nine days. Our results on the death of the second chick and the test involving the rescuing of a second-hatched chick aged five days, suggest that the recommended age for intervention should be between 3 and 6 days, with 4–5 days probably being the optimal age for the rescue.

The population of the Vulnerable Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti has experienced a gradual recovery from 38 pairs (1974) to 198 (2004). We analysed the spatial and temporal variation of the demographic parameters for 1981–2004. Annual productivity was 1.19–1.32 chicks per female and adult survival rate 0.918–0.986. Survival during the post-fledging period was 0.894 and the annual survival rate of the dispersing individuals was 0.561. Three phases of population evolution were distinguished: growth (1981–1993), stability or slight decrease (1994–1999) and growth (2000–2004). Variation in adult survival seems to explain this pattern for the first two periods. However, a large disparity between the observed growth rate and the modelled population growth in 2000–2004 is best explained if we assume that a decrease in the age of recruitment took place. This is supported by the recent increase in the frequency of non-adult birds in breeding pairs. The survival of unpaired eagles in dispersal areas is becoming more important for the maintenance of current population growth. Spatial variation of adult survival and breeding success is not congruent with the observed growth rate of the population, which suggests the existence of an important flow of individuals between populations. These results highlight the importance of addressing the conservation of the species from a global perspective and the need to focus on adult survival in breeding territories and on non-adult survival in dispersal areas.

The distribution and abundance of Spanish Imperial Eagle Aquila adalberti populations between 1974 and 2004 were determined using information from national censuses. Its breeding area occupies the south-western quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and is composed of 13 nuclei and 5 subpopulations. Since 1974, population levels in all nuclei, except the one in Doñana, have expanded. The non-breeding dispersion area, according to sightings of juvenile and immature individuals in quadrants of 10 x 10 km, coincided with that of the breeding area. Bibliographical information showed that halfway through the 19th century the Spanish Imperial Eagle was considered abundant, at least locally; and most cited breeding areas were in relatively human-occupied plains. Towards the end of the 19th century the population became scarce; remaining so for most of the 20th century, with remote mountain ranges being the most cited breeding habitats. The comparison between the data from the first census, in 1974, that located 38 territorial pairs, and the 2004 census that located 198 pairs, shows that: 1) percentages of pairs in plains have increased, while those in mountains have decreased; 2) the trophic quality of the habitat, based on rabbit abundance, has decreased, and 3) numbers of nests in both protected areas and on private ground have increased significantly. The type of land ownership did not seem to affect breeding performance. Populations have increased more outside protected areas than within, despite the availability of potential habitat. In the past century, legal protection and attitude changes towards this eagle seem to have been influential in preventing its extinction. At present, habitat management seems also to be an important factor in its continuing recovery.

We analyse the causes of mortality for the Bearded Vulture in Europe. Shooting (31%), intentional poisoning (26%), collision (18%) and unintentional poisoning (12%) were the most important causes of mortality. No differences were found between sexes or age classes (non-adults and adults) for any of the causes of death. When the four main categories of mortality were grouped in periods of 3 years from 1986 (coinciding with the species' reintroduction to the Alps) to 2006, mortality showed significant temporal variation. The results suggest that while the number of collision/electrocution deaths has remained stable or increased slightly, the number of cases of shooting has declined during the last 6 years, while at the same time intentional and unintentional poisonings have increased. We found substantial differences between causes of mortality recorded for birds located by chance (75% related to shootings and collisions with powerlines) and radio-tagged birds (86% related to intentional and unintentional poisoning), suggesting biases in methodology for monitoring mortality. The results suggest that human persecution continues to be the main factor contributing to unnatural mortality for European Bearded Vultures. Future management actions should concentrate on the creation of protocols for the collection of carcasses and detailed analyses to determine and mitigate anthropogenic sources of mortality.

The analysis of 267 records of non-natural mortality of the Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti over a 16-year period (1989-2004) shows an annual rate of 15.1 individuals found dead per year and that electrocution (47.7%) and poisoning (30.7%) were the most frequent causes of mortality. Most cases (91.7%) were of human origin, and of those 92.3% were accidental. Just over half (50.2%) were related to the transmission of electricity and human activity (collisions and electrocution), and 40.7% related to game practices and livestock protection (control of predators). No differences between sexes were found but subadults were electrocuted more frequently than expected whilst adults were poisoned more frequently. In breeding areas poison was the most frequent cause of mortality, whereas electrocution was the most common cause of death in dispersal areas. Poisoning occurred more frequently than expected in the Northern and Southern regions compared to the West-Central region. Electrocution was significantly more frequent in the West-Central region, and less common in the Southern region. The increase in electrocutions over the last few years is associated with previous non-permanent corrections on electricity power lines, whilst the increase in the cases of poisoning appears to be associated with the use of illegal poison in predator control by small game practices and for livestock protection. Permanent corrections in power lines and more research and awareness effort in the small game sector are recommended to reduce human-induced mortality in this Vulnerable species.

Direct observation of Eurasian otters was used to demonstrate the characteristics and interannual use of small patches of habitats by females and litters in stretches of two rivers in north-east Spain. During censuses and other vigils, 215 otter sightings (involving 265 otters) were obtained, 14–18% of which were observations on females and litters. Thirty-five additional sightings were obtained in stretches used by litters of large cubs (47 individuals). Six small cub (2- to 6-month-old) and 15 large cub (>7-month-old) different family units (litters) were detected in both rivers as a whole. Average sizes of litters of small and large cubs were significantly similar, being respectively 1.17 (SD=0.41, range 1–2, n=6) and 1.27 (SD=0.46, range 1–2, n=15), so mortality of cubs was low at the period before dispersal. Litters were detected in significantly different patches from other otters, and litters of small and large cubs were also found in significantly different river sections. Litters of large cubs used small home ranges and core areas, and selected sections at reservoir tails, reservoirs, wider stretches, rough waters and refuges. Small cubs were found in narrow river stretches with calm waters. Selected patches had sheltered zones with abundant fish. This reduced use of space may result in the low rate of mortality.