This chapter discusses the place of English within the Germanic language family and the broader Indo-European language family. It examines the kinds of evidence that have been used to reconstruct these language families, discussing the importance of regular sound changes and the vocabulary of the descendant languages. The key concepts of genetic inheritance, language contact, and divergence and convergence are also defined with reference to these language families, and the chapter discusses some of the key movements of peoples in the Migration Age. Some key linguistic features of Proto-Germanic are then discussed, such as its inflexional morphology, phonology, and lexis.

This chapter discusses the Middle English period, considering the historical events that influenced the language and its speakers from 1066 to around 1500 and the development of the language during this period. The influence of French on Middle English is discussed, including lexical and orthographic changes. The chapter also considers the development of Middle English dialects and the movements towards a new standard form of the language towards the end of the period. Middle English phonology and inflexional morphology are outlined, together with some key syntactic features, and the chapter then provides specimen passages of very early Middle English and fourteenth-century English, together with commentary. The chapter closes with a discussion of Middle Scots, outlining key features of the language and its development and providing a specimen passage.

This chapter deals with changes between 1700 and 1900. It begins with analysis of a text from 1711 to illustrate the differences between the English of this period and the present day. There are sections on spelling and punctuation; standardization, codification, and prescriptivism; the verb system (the progressive in particular); phonological change and Received Pronunciation; and scientific vocabulary and lexical innovation more broadly, including an account of the methods of word formation. The importance of corpora and other electronic resources for research into the language of this period is discussed, and the chapter draws on these resources and research based on them.

This chapter concentrates on changes in English between 1500 and 1700. An account of lexical innovation during this period presents evidence from the Oxford English Dictionary. The dominance of Latin as a source of intellectual vocabulary is discussed along with the backlash against ‘inkhorn terms’, but evidence of loans from other languages and word formation within English is also presented. Changes in pronunciation including the Great Vowel Shift are outlined, with an account of the methods used to reconstruct earlier pronunciation. An extract from Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Part 1 is examined to illustrate changes in morphology and syntax. A note on regional variation concludes the chapter.

This chapter begins with a historical account of the expansion of English. Theoretical models of world Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca are outlined. The role of language contact in the development of world Englishes is discussed, along with the nature of pidgins and creoles. A section deals with controversies about the use of English, especially in education, in former British colonies. Differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary among some of the major varieties of English are outlined. The section on vocabulary uses evidence from the Oxford English Dictionary and notes the recent restoration of Indigenous place names in several countries.

This chapter is intended for readers who have not had any experience of linguistics and provides the necessary background for studying the history of English. It introduces the nature and structure of language in general, but with an emphasis on English. There are sections on phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis, semantics, and pragmatics. The terminology required for the study of language is defined and explained throughout. To illustrate historical change in English, the chapter concludes with the comparison and discussion of extracts from translations of the Bible going back from the twentieth to the eleventh centuries.

This chapter examines the Old English period, outlining some of the key historical developments from the settlement of Germanic-speaking groups in England through to the Norman Conquest. The key features of Old English are discussed, including phonology and orthography, inflexional morphology, syntax, and lexis. The discussion also deals with Old English dialects, the impact of Old Norse on the development of English during this period, the preservation of textual material in Old English, and the West Saxon Schriftsprache. The chapter concludes with two specimen passages of late Old English prose and verse, accompanied by commentary on key linguistic features of the passages.

This chapter looks at changes in the first quarter of the twenty-first century and discusses possible future developments. The role of social media, migration, and travel in the rapid global spread of new features is discussed, as is the levelling of local and regional varieties and the rise of multicultural varieties in large cities. The Oxford English Dictionary is used to illustrate patterns of lexical innovation and changes of meaning in this period. Recent changes in the nature and status of Received Pronunciation are outlined. Sections devoted to recent changes in pronunciation and grammar are followed by discussion of possible future trends.