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Strategy-In-Practices
- A Process-Philosophical Perspective on Strategy-Making
- Robert C. H. Chia, David Mackay
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- Published online:
- 06 March 2023
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- 23 March 2023
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This Element maintains that increasing strategic effectiveness involves paying greater attention to the idiosyncratic capabilities and know-how already accumulated in an organization's shared practices and the modus operandi contained therein. An organization's modus operandi describes the practiced patterned regularities that enables it to achieve a consistency of response in strategic circumstances even in the absence of any clear, formalized strategic plan. This patterned regularity known as Strategy-in-Practices (SiP) draws attention to the tacit influence of an organization's shared practices on its formal strategy-making efforts. It emphasizes the need for both these to be aligned so that the organization is better prepared to cope with the challenges and opportunities it faces.
Prospective study of polygenic risk, protective factors, and incident depression following combat deployment in US Army soldiers
- Karmel W. Choi, Chia-Yen Chen, Robert J. Ursano, Xiaoying Sun, Sonia Jain, Ronald C. Kessler, Karestan C. Koenen, Min-Jung Wang, Gary H. Wynn, Major Depressive Disorder Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, Laura Campbell-Sills, Murray B. Stein, Jordan W. Smoller
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- Journal:
- Psychological Medicine / Volume 50 / Issue 5 / April 2020
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 15 April 2019, pp. 737-745
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Background
Whereas genetic susceptibility increases the risk for major depressive disorder (MDD), non-genetic protective factors may mitigate this risk. In a large-scale prospective study of US Army soldiers, we examined whether trait resilience and/or unit cohesion could protect against the onset of MDD following combat deployment, even in soldiers at high polygenic risk.
MethodsData were analyzed from 3079 soldiers of European ancestry assessed before and after their deployment to Afghanistan. Incident MDD was defined as no MDD episode at pre-deployment, followed by a MDD episode following deployment. Polygenic risk scores were constructed from a large-scale genome-wide association study of major depression. We first examined the main effects of the MDD PRS and each protective factor on incident MDD. We then tested the effects of each protective factor on incident MDD across strata of polygenic risk.
ResultsPolygenic risk showed a dose–response relationship to depression, such that soldiers at high polygenic risk had greatest odds for incident MDD. Both unit cohesion and trait resilience were prospectively associated with reduced risk for incident MDD. Notably, the protective effect of unit cohesion persisted even in soldiers at highest polygenic risk.
ConclusionsPolygenic risk was associated with new-onset MDD in deployed soldiers. However, unit cohesion – an index of perceived support and morale – was protective against incident MDD even among those at highest genetic risk, and may represent a potent target for promoting resilience in vulnerable soldiers. Findings illustrate the value of combining genomic and environmental data in a prospective design to identify robust protective factors for mental health.
ATLAS probe: Breakthrough science of galaxy evolution, cosmology, Milky Way, and the Solar System
- Yun Wang, Massimo Robberto, Mark Dickinson, Lynne A. Hillenbrand, Wesley Fraser, Peter Behroozi, Jarle Brinchmann, Chia-Hsun Chuang, Andrea Cimatti, Robert Content, Emanuele Daddi, Henry C. Ferguson, Christopher Hirata, Michael J. Hudson, J. Davy Kirkpatrick, Alvaro Orsi, Russell Ryan, Alice Shapley, Mario Ballardini, Robert Barkhouser, James Bartlett, Robert Benjamin, Ranga Chary, Charlie Conroy, Megan Donahue, Olivier Doré, Peter Eisenhardt, Karl Glazebrook, George Helou, Sangeeta Malhotra, Lauro Moscardini, Jeffrey A. Newman, Zoran Ninkov, Michael Ressler, James Rhoads, Jason Rhodes, Daniel Scolnic, Stephen Smee, Francesco Valentino, Risa H. Wechsler
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- Journal:
- Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia / Volume 36 / 2019
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 April 2019, e015
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Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy Probe is a concept for a National Aeronautics and Space Administration probe-class space mission that will achieve ground-breaking science in the fields of galaxy evolution, cosmology, Milky Way, and the Solar System. It is the follow-up space mission to Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), boosting its scientific return by obtaining deep 1–4 μm slit spectroscopy for ∼70% of all galaxies imaged by the ∼2 000 deg2 WFIRST High Latitude Survey at z > 0.5. Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy will measure accurate and precise redshifts for ∼200 M galaxies out to z < 7, and deliver spectra that enable a wide range of diagnostic studies of the physical properties of galaxies over most of cosmic history. Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy Probe and WFIRST together will produce a 3D map of the Universe over 2 000 deg2, the definitive data sets for studying galaxy evolution, probing dark matter, dark energy and modifications of General Relativity, and quantifying the 3D structure and stellar content of the Milky Way. Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy Probe science spans four broad categories: (1) Revolutionising galaxy evolution studies by tracing the relation between galaxies and dark matter from galaxy groups to cosmic voids and filaments, from the epoch of reionisation through the peak era of galaxy assembly; (2) Opening a new window into the dark Universe by weighing the dark matter filaments using 3D weak lensing with spectroscopic redshifts, and obtaining definitive measurements of dark energy and modification of General Relativity using galaxy clustering; (3) Probing the Milky Way’s dust-enshrouded regions, reaching the far side of our Galaxy; and (4) Exploring the formation history of the outer Solar System by characterising Kuiper Belt Objects. Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy Probe is a 1.5 m telescope with a field of view of 0.4 deg2, and uses digital micro-mirror devices as slit selectors. It has a spectroscopic resolution of R = 1 000, and a wavelength range of 1–4 μm. The lack of slit spectroscopy from space over a wide field of view is the obvious gap in current and planned future space missions; Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy fills this big gap with an unprecedented spectroscopic capability based on digital micro-mirror devices (with an estimated spectroscopic multiplex factor greater than 5 000). Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy is designed to fit within the National Aeronautics and Space Administration probe-class space mission cost envelope; it has a single instrument, a telescope aperture that allows for a lighter launch vehicle, and mature technology (we have identified a path for digital micro-mirror devices to reach Technology Readiness Level 6 within 2 yr). Astrophysics Telescope for Large Area Spectroscopy Probe will lead to transformative science over the entire range of astrophysics: from galaxy evolution to the dark Universe, from Solar System objects to the dusty regions of the Milky Way.
Randomised clinical trial of community-based peer-led and psychologist-led group treatment for hoarding disorder
- Carol A. Mathews, Robert Scott Mackin, Chia-Ying Chou, Soo Y. Uhm, Larry David Bain, Sandra J. Stark, Michael Gause, Ofilio R. Vigil, John Franklin, Mark Salazar, Julian Plumadore, Lauren C. Smith, Kiya Komaiko, Gillian Howell, Eduardo Vega, Joanne Chan, Monika B. Eckfield, Janice Y. Tsoh, Kevin Delucchi
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- Journal:
- BJPsych Open / Volume 4 / Issue 4 / July 2018
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 20 July 2018, pp. 285-293
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Background
Treatment for hoarding disorder is typically performed by mental health professionals, potentially limiting access to care in underserved areas.
AimsWe aimed to conduct a non-inferiority trial of group peer-facilitated therapy (G-PFT) and group psychologist-led cognitive–behavioural therapy (G-CBT).
MethodWe randomised 323 adults with hording disorder 15 weeks of G-PFT or 16 weeks of G-CBT and assessed at baseline, post-treatment and longitudinally (≥3 months post-treatment: mean 14.4 months, range 3–25). Predictors of treatment response were examined.
ResultsG-PFT (effect size 1.20) was as effective as G-CBT (effect size 1.21; between-group difference 1.82 points, t = −1.71, d.f. = 245, P = 0.04). More homework completion and ongoing help from family and friends resulted in lower severity scores at longitudinal follow-up (t = 2.79, d.f. = 175, P = 0.006; t = 2.89, d.f. = 175, P = 0.004).
ConclusionsPeer-led groups were as effective as psychologist-led groups, providing a novel treatment avenue for individuals without access to mental health professionals.
Declaration of interestC.A.M. has received grant funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and travel reimbursement and speakers’ honoraria from the Tourette Association of America (TAA), as well as honoraria and travel reimbursement from the NIH for serving as an NIH Study Section reviewer. K.D. receives research support from the NIH and honoraria and travel reimbursement from the NIH for serving as an NIH Study Section reviewer. R.S.M. receives research support from the National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Aging, the Hillblom Foundation, Janssen Pharmaceuticals (research grant) and the Alzheimer's Association. R.S.M. has also received travel support from the National Institute of Mental Health for Workshop participation. J.Y.T. receives research support from the NIH, Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute and the California Tobacco Related Research Program, and honoraria and travel reimbursement from the NIH for serving as an NIH Study Section reviewer. All other authors report no conflicts of interest.
2 - Epistemological alternatives for researching strategy as practice: building and dwelling worldviews
- from Part I - Ontological and Epistemological Questions
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- By Robert Chia, University of Glasgow, Andreas Rasche, Copenhagen Business School (CBS)
- Edited by Damon Golsorkhi, Linda Rouleau, David Seidl, Universität Zürich, Eero Vaara
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- Cambridge Handbook of Strategy as Practice
- Published online:
- 05 October 2015
- Print publication:
- 03 September 2015, pp 44-57
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Summary
The ordinary practitioners…live ‘down below’, below the threshold at which visibility begins… [T]heir knowledge…is as blind as that of lovers in each other's arms… It is as though the practices were characterized by their blindness.
De Certeau (1984: 93)Introduction
Most traditional approaches to strategy research have tended to consist of a complex amalgam of activities comprising the analyses of dependent and independent variables, theoretical conjecturing and the testing of theories and models developed to capture the essence of strategic realities (Rasche 2008). In this regard, the strategy-as-practice approach to research is a welcome departure in its single-minded insistence on focusing primarily on what strategy practitioners actually do. Although the strategy-as-practice field has attracted a mass of empirical work (Balogun and Johnson 2005; Jarzabkowski 2005; Jarzabkowski and Wilson 2002; Paroutis and Heracleous 2013; Regnér 2003; Samra-Fredericks 2003) and theoretical clarification (Denis, Langley and Rouleau 2007; Jarzabkowski, Balogun and Seidl 2007; Johnson, Melin and Whittington 2003; Whittington 1996; 2003; 2006; for a recent review, see Vaara and Whittington 2012), the alternative epistemological groundings available and how they may affect further efforts at conceptualizing strategy as practice remain relatively unarticulated. This is despite the fact that there have been some notable attempts to clarify research and methodological priorities for the SAP movement (Balogun, Huff and Johnson 2003; Ezzamel and Willmott 2010; Jarzabkowski 2003; 2004; 2005; Johnson, Melin and Whittington 2003; McCabe 2010; Tsoukas 2010; Whittington 2006).
For researchers it is vital to give substantial consideration to the manner in which accounts and explanations proffered on strategy practice are reflexively moderated by an acute awareness of the inherent problems relating to the ‘situatedness’ of strategic action, and hence the epistemological issues associated with such attempted representations. The manner in which academically articulated accounts of strategy practice tend to create a schism between such accounts and the very practices they purport to explain is one of the most intractable problems of the research process. Such a schism can be addressed and rectified only through a careful examination of the dominant research dispositions and the nature and limitations of the resultant explanatory outcomes involved.
Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. Deichmann Edwards, Miguel A. De La Torre, George E. Demacopoulos, Thomas de Mayo, Leah DeVun, Beatriz de Vasconcellos Dias, Dennis C. Dickerson, John M. Dillon, Luis Miguel Donatello, Igor Dorfmann-Lazarev, Susanna Drake, Jonathan A. Draper, N. Dreher Martin, Otto Dreydoppel, Angelyn Dries, A. J. Droge, Francis X. D'Sa, Marilyn Dunn, Nicole Wilkinson Duran, Rifaat Ebied, Mark J. Edwards, William H. Edwards, Leonard H. Ehrlich, Nancy L. Eiesland, Martin Elbel, J. Harold Ellens, Stephen Ellingson, Marvin M. Ellison, Robert Ellsberg, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Eldon Jay Epp, Peter C. Erb, Tassilo Erhardt, Maria Erling, Noel Leo Erskine, Gillian R. Evans, Virginia Fabella, Michael A. Fahey, Edward Farley, Margaret A. Farley, Wendy Farley, Robert Fastiggi, Seena Fazel, Duncan S. Ferguson, Helwar Figueroa, Paul Corby Finney, Kyriaki Karidoyanes FitzGerald, Thomas E. FitzGerald, John R. Fitzmier, Marie Therese Flanagan, Sabina Flanagan, Claude Flipo, Ronald B. Flowers, Carole Fontaine, David Ford, Mary Ford, Stephanie A. Ford, Jim Forest, William Franke, Robert M. Franklin, Ruth Franzén, Edward H. Friedman, Samuel Frouisou, Lorelei F. Fuchs, Jojo M. Fung, Inger Furseth, Richard R. Gaillardetz, Brandon Gallaher, China Galland, Mark Galli, Ismael García, Tharscisse Gatwa, Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Luis María Gavilanes del Castillo, Pavel L. Gavrilyuk, Volney P. Gay, Metropolitan Athanasios Geevargis, Kondothra M. George, Mary Gerhart, Simon Gikandi, Maurice Gilbert, Michael J. Gillgannon, Verónica Giménez Beliveau, Terryl Givens, Beth Glazier-McDonald, Philip Gleason, Menghun Goh, Brian Golding, Bishop Hilario M. Gomez, Michelle A. Gonzalez, Donald K. Gorrell, Roy Gottfried, Tamara Grdzelidze, Joel B. Green, Niels Henrik Gregersen, Cristina Grenholm, Herbert Griffiths, Eric W. Gritsch, Erich S. Gruen, Christoffer H. Grundmann, Paul H. Gundani, Jon P. Gunnemann, Petre Guran, Vidar L. Haanes, Jeremiah M. Hackett, Getatchew Haile, Douglas John Hall, Nicholas Hammond, Daphne Hampson, Jehu J. Hanciles, Barry Hankins, Jennifer Haraguchi, Stanley S. Harakas, Anthony John Harding, Conrad L. Harkins, J. William Harmless, Marjory Harper, Amir Harrak, Joel F. Harrington, Mark W. Harris, Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Van A. Harvey, R. Chris Hassel, Jione Havea, Daniel Hawk, Diana L. Hayes, Leslie Hayes, Priscilla Hayner, S. Mark Heim, Simo Heininen, Richard P. Heitzenrater, Eila Helander, David Hempton, Scott H. Hendrix, Jan-Olav Henriksen, Gina Hens-Piazza, Carter Heyward, Nicholas J. Higham, David Hilliard, Norman A. Hjelm, Peter C. Hodgson, Arthur Holder, M. Jan Holton, Dwight N. Hopkins, Ronnie Po-chia Hsia, Po-Ho Huang, James Hudnut-Beumler, Jennifer S. Hughes, Leonard M. Hummel, Mary E. Hunt, Laennec Hurbon, Mark Hutchinson, Susan E. Hylen, Mary Beth Ingham, H. Larry Ingle, Dale T. Irvin, Jon Isaak, Paul John Isaak, Ada María Isasi-Díaz, Hans Raun Iversen, Margaret C. Jacob, Arthur James, Maria Jansdotter-Samuelsson, David Jasper, Werner G. Jeanrond, Renée Jeffery, David Lyle Jeffrey, Theodore W. Jennings, David H. Jensen, Robin Margaret Jensen, David Jobling, Dale A. Johnson, Elizabeth A. Johnson, Maxwell E. Johnson, Sarah Johnson, Mark D. Johnston, F. Stanley Jones, James William Jones, John R. Jones, Alissa Jones Nelson, Inge Jonsson, Jan Joosten, Elizabeth Judd, Mulambya Peggy Kabonde, Robert Kaggwa, Sylvester Kahakwa, Isaac Kalimi, Ogbu U. Kalu, Eunice Kamaara, Wayne C. Kannaday, Musimbi Kanyoro, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Frank Kaufmann, Léon Nguapitshi Kayongo, Richard Kearney, Alice A. Keefe, Ralph Keen, Catherine Keller, Anthony J. Kelly, Karen Kennelly, Kathi Lynn Kern, Fergus Kerr, Edward Kessler, George Kilcourse, Heup Young Kim, Kim Sung-Hae, Kim Yong-Bock, Kim Yung Suk, Richard King, Thomas M. King, Robert M. Kingdon, Ross Kinsler, Hans G. Kippenberg, Cheryl A. Kirk-Duggan, Clifton Kirkpatrick, Leonid Kishkovsky, Nadieszda Kizenko, Jeffrey Klaiber, Hans-Josef Klauck, Sidney Knight, Samuel Kobia, Robert Kolb, Karla Ann Koll, Heikki Kotila, Donald Kraybill, Philip D. W. Krey, Yves Krumenacker, Jeffrey Kah-Jin Kuan, Simanga R. Kumalo, Peter Kuzmic, Simon Shui-Man Kwan, Kwok Pui-lan, André LaCocque, Stephen E. Lahey, John Tsz Pang Lai, Emiel Lamberts, Armando Lampe, Craig Lampe, Beverly J. Lanzetta, Eve LaPlante, Lizette Larson-Miller, Ariel Bybee Laughton, Leonard Lawlor, Bentley Layton, Robin A. Leaver, Karen Lebacqz, Archie Chi Chung Lee, Marilyn J. Legge, Hervé LeGrand, D. L. LeMahieu, Raymond Lemieux, Bill J. Leonard, Ellen M. Leonard, Outi Leppä, Jean Lesaulnier, Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, Henrietta Leyser, Alexei Lidov, Bernard Lightman, Paul Chang-Ha Lim, Carter Lindberg, Mark R. Lindsay, James R. Linville, James C. Livingston, Ann Loades, David Loades, Jean-Claude Loba-Mkole, Lo Lung Kwong, Wati Longchar, Eleazar López, David W. Lotz, Andrew Louth, Robin W. Lovin, William Luis, Frank D. Macchia, Diarmaid N. J. MacCulloch, Kirk R. MacGregor, Marjory A. MacLean, Donald MacLeod, Tomas S. Maddela, Inge Mager, Laurenti Magesa, David G. Maillu, Fortunato Mallimaci, Philip Mamalakis, Kä Mana, Ukachukwu Chris Manus, Herbert Robinson Marbury, Reuel Norman Marigza, Jacqueline Mariña, Antti Marjanen, Luiz C. L. Marques, Madipoane Masenya (ngwan'a Mphahlele), Caleb J. D. Maskell, Steve Mason, Thomas Massaro, Fernando Matamoros Ponce, András Máté-Tóth, Odair Pedroso Mateus, Dinis Matsolo, Fumitaka Matsuoka, John D'Arcy May, Yelena Mazour-Matusevich, Theodore Mbazumutima, John S. McClure, Christian McConnell, Lee Martin McDonald, Gary B. McGee, Thomas McGowan, Alister E. McGrath, Richard J. McGregor, John A. McGuckin, Maud Burnett McInerney, Elsie Anne McKee, Mary B. McKinley, James F. McMillan, Ernan McMullin, Kathleen E. McVey, M. Douglas Meeks, Monica Jyotsna Melanchthon, Ilie Melniciuc-Puica, Everett Mendoza, Raymond A. Mentzer, William W. Menzies, Ina Merdjanova, Franziska Metzger, Constant J. Mews, Marvin Meyer, Carol Meyers, Vasile Mihoc, Gunner Bjerg Mikkelsen, Maria Inêz de Castro Millen, Clyde Lee Miller, Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore, Alexander Mirkovic, Paul Misner, Nozomu Miyahira, R. W. L. Moberly, Gerald Moede, Aloo Osotsi Mojola, Sunanda Mongia, Rebeca Montemayor, James Moore, Roger E. Moore, Craig E. Morrison O.Carm, Jeffry H. Morrison, Keith Morrison, Wilson J. Moses, Tefetso Henry Mothibe, Mokgethi Motlhabi, Fulata Moyo, Henry Mugabe, Jesse Ndwiga Kanyua Mugambi, Peggy Mulambya-Kabonde, Robert Bruce Mullin, Pamela Mullins Reaves, Saskia Murk Jansen, Heleen L. Murre-Van den Berg, Augustine Musopole, Isaac M. T. Mwase, Philomena Mwaura, Cecilia Nahnfeldt, Anne Nasimiyu Wasike, Carmiña Navia Velasco, Thulani Ndlazi, Alexander Negrov, James B. Nelson, David G. Newcombe, Carol Newsom, Helen J. Nicholson, George W. E. Nickelsburg, Tatyana Nikolskaya, Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Bertil Nilsson, Nyambura Njoroge, Fidelis Nkomazana, Mary Beth Norton, Christian Nottmeier, Sonene Nyawo, Anthère Nzabatsinda, Edward T. Oakes, Gerald O'Collins, Daniel O'Connell, David W. Odell-Scott, Mercy Amba Oduyoye, Kathleen O'Grady, Oyeronke Olajubu, Thomas O'Loughlin, Dennis T. Olson, J. Steven O'Malley, Cephas N. Omenyo, Muriel Orevillo-Montenegro, César Augusto Ornellas Ramos, Agbonkhianmeghe E. Orobator, Kenan B. Osborne, Carolyn Osiek, Javier Otaola Montagne, Douglas F. Ottati, Anna May Say Pa, Irina Paert, Jerry G. Pankhurst, Aristotle Papanikolaou, Samuele F. Pardini, Stefano Parenti, Peter Paris, Sung Bae Park, Cristián G. Parker, Raquel Pastor, Joseph Pathrapankal, Daniel Patte, W. Brown Patterson, Clive Pearson, Keith F. Pecklers, Nancy Cardoso Pereira, David Horace Perkins, Pheme Perkins, Edward N. Peters, Rebecca Todd Peters, Bishop Yeznik Petrossian, Raymond Pfister, Peter C. Phan, Isabel Apawo Phiri, William S. F. Pickering, Derrick G. Pitard, William Elvis Plata, Zlatko Plese, John Plummer, James Newton Poling, Ronald Popivchak, Andrew Porter, Ute Possekel, James M. Powell, Enos Das Pradhan, Devadasan Premnath, Jaime Adrían Prieto Valladares, Anne Primavesi, Randall Prior, María Alicia Puente Lutteroth, Eduardo Guzmão Quadros, Albert Rabil, Laurent William Ramambason, Apolonio M. Ranche, Vololona Randriamanantena Andriamitandrina, Lawrence R. Rast, Paul L. Redditt, Adele Reinhartz, Rolf Rendtorff, Pål Repstad, James N. Rhodes, John K. Riches, Joerg Rieger, Sharon H. Ringe, Sandra Rios, Tyler Roberts, David M. Robinson, James M. Robinson, Joanne Maguire Robinson, Richard A. H. Robinson, Roy R. Robson, Jack B. Rogers, Maria Roginska, Sidney Rooy, Rev. Garnett Roper, Maria José Fontelas Rosado-Nunes, Andrew C. Ross, Stefan Rossbach, François Rossier, John D. Roth, John K. Roth, Phillip Rothwell, Richard E. Rubenstein, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Markku Ruotsila, John E. Rybolt, Risto Saarinen, John Saillant, Juan Sanchez, Wagner Lopes Sanchez, Hugo N. Santos, Gerhard Sauter, Gloria L. Schaab, Sandra M. Schneiders, Quentin J. Schultze, Fernando F. Segovia, Turid Karlsen Seim, Carsten Selch Jensen, Alan P. F. Sell, Frank C. Senn, Kent Davis Sensenig, Damían Setton, Bal Krishna Sharma, Carolyn J. Sharp, Thomas Sheehan, N. Gerald Shenk, Christian Sheppard, Charles Sherlock, Tabona Shoko, Walter B. Shurden, Marguerite Shuster, B. Mark Sietsema, Batara Sihombing, Neil Silberman, Clodomiro Siller, Samuel Silva-Gotay, Heikki Silvet, John K. Simmons, Hagith Sivan, James C. Skedros, Abraham Smith, Ashley A. Smith, Ted A. Smith, Daud Soesilo, Pia Søltoft, Choan-Seng (C. S.) Song, Kathryn Spink, Bryan Spinks, Eric O. Springsted, Nicolas Standaert, Brian Stanley, Glen H. Stassen, Karel Steenbrink, Stephen J. Stein, Andrea Sterk, Gregory E. Sterling, Columba Stewart, Jacques Stewart, Robert B. Stewart, Cynthia Stokes Brown, Ken Stone, Anne Stott, Elizabeth Stuart, Monya Stubbs, Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki, David Kwang-sun Suh, Scott W. Sunquist, Keith Suter, Douglas Sweeney, Charles H. Talbert, Shawqi N. Talia, Elsa Tamez, Joseph B. Tamney, Jonathan Y. Tan, Yak-Hwee Tan, Kathryn Tanner, Feiya Tao, Elizabeth S. Tapia, Aquiline Tarimo, Claire Taylor, Mark Lewis Taylor, Bishop Abba Samuel Wolde Tekestebirhan, Eugene TeSelle, M. Thomas Thangaraj, David R. Thomas, Andrew Thornley, Scott Thumma, Marcelo Timotheo da Costa, George E. “Tink” Tinker, Ola Tjørhom, Karen Jo Torjesen, Iain R. Torrance, Fernando Torres-Londoño, Archbishop Demetrios [Trakatellis], Marit Trelstad, Christine Trevett, Phyllis Trible, Johannes Tromp, Paul Turner, Robert G. Tuttle, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Peter Tyler, Anders Tyrberg, Justin Ukpong, Javier Ulloa, Camillus Umoh, Kristi Upson-Saia, Martina Urban, Monica Uribe, Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu, Richard Vaggione, Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Valliere, T. J. Van Bavel, Steven Vanderputten, Peter Van der Veer, Huub Van de Sandt, Louis Van Tongeren, Luke A. Veronis, Noel Villalba, Ramón Vinke, Tim Vivian, David Voas, Elena Volkova, Katharina von Kellenbach, Elina Vuola, Timothy Wadkins, Elaine M. Wainwright, Randi Jones Walker, Dewey D. Wallace, Jerry Walls, Michael J. Walsh, Philip Walters, Janet Walton, Jonathan L. Walton, Wang Xiaochao, Patricia A. Ward, David Harrington Watt, Herold D. Weiss, Laurence L. Welborn, Sharon D. Welch, Timothy Wengert, Traci C. West, Merold Westphal, David Wetherell, Barbara Wheeler, Carolinne White, Jean-Paul Wiest, Frans Wijsen, Terry L. Wilder, Felix Wilfred, Rebecca Wilkin, Daniel H. Williams, D. Newell Williams, Michael A. Williams, Vincent L. Wimbush, Gabriele Winkler, Anders Winroth, Lauri Emílio Wirth, James A. Wiseman, Ebba Witt-Brattström, Teofil Wojciechowski, John Wolffe, Kenman L. Wong, Wong Wai Ching, Linda Woodhead, Wendy M. Wright, Rose Wu, Keith E. Yandell, Gale A. Yee, Viktor Yelensky, Yeo Khiok-Khng, Gustav K. K. Yeung, Angela Yiu, Amos Yong, Yong Ting Jin, You Bin, Youhanna Nessim Youssef, Eliana Yunes, Robert Michael Zaller, Valarie H. Ziegler, Barbara Brown Zikmund, Joyce Ann Zimmerman, Aurora Zlotnik, Zhuo Xinping
- Edited by Daniel Patte, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
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- Book:
- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
- Published online:
- 05 August 2012
- Print publication:
- 20 September 2010, pp xi-xliv
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2 - Epistemological alternatives for researching Strategy as Practice: building and dwelling worldviews
- Edited by Damon Golsorkhi, Linda Rouleau, David Seidl, Universität Zürich, Eero Vaara
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- Cambridge Handbook of Strategy as Practice
- Published online:
- 05 October 2012
- Print publication:
- 26 August 2010, pp 34-46
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Introduction
The ordinary practitioners […] live ‘down below’, below the threshold at which visibility begins […] their knowledge […] is as blind as that of lovers in each other's arms […] It is as though the practices were characterized by their blindness
(de Certeau 1984, p. 93)Most traditional approaches to strategy research have tended to consist of a complex amalgam of activities consisting of the analyses of dependent and independent variables, theoretical conjecturing and the testing of theories and models developed to capture the essence of strategic realities (Rasche 2007). In this regard, the Strategy as Practice approach to research is a welcome departure in its single-minded insistence on focusing primarily on what strategy practitioners actually do. Although the Strategy as Practice field has attracted a mass of empirical work (Balogun and Johnson 2005; Jarzabkowski 2005; Jarzabkowski and Wilson 2002; Regnér 2003; Samra-Fredericks 2003) and theoretical clarification (Denis et al. 2007; Jarzabkowski et al. 2007; Johnson et al. 2003; Whittington 1996, 2003, 2006), the alternative epistemological groundings available and how they may affect further efforts at conceptualizing Strategy as Practice remain relatively unarticulated. This is despite the fact that there have been some notable attempts to clarify research and methodological priorities for the Strategy as Practice movement (Balogun et al. 2003; Jarzabkowski 2003, 2004, 2005; Johnson et al. 2003; Whittington 2006).
3 - Reconceptualizing agency, self-interest and purposive action
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- Strategy without Design
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 91-111
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Poor fool! in whose petty estimation all things are little.
Johann von Goethe, The Sorrows of Young Werther, Book II, 18 AugustIn the previous chapter we showed how methodological individualism can create paradoxical and contradictory situations because of a lack of system wisdom. From the perspective of system wisdom, agents are construed not as isolated or isolatable entities but as unique accumulations of interactions; here the agent is assumed to be a thoroughly socialized being, able to demonstrate awareness not just of his or her own conscious purpose but of wider system influences, by which his or her life might be enriched and enhanced as well as threatened. This chapter, therefore, continues with this discussion of how the dominant view of human agency becomes complicated by the inevitable presence and persistence of organized and organizing systems, into which an agent is born, lives and dies and which are not of her own making. This redirecting of attention away from individual agency towards an awareness of the relational complicity implied in everyday social practice enables us to see how the complexities of our social world may be made more explainable through recourse to the practice of everyday coping actions and interactions. As advocates of this system wisdom, we argue for what might be called a weak methodological individualism: an interactively constituted ‘self’ that is associated with phronesis (practical wisdom) and with praxis as a self-cultivating rather than a productive activity.
Epilogue: Negative capability
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 209-212
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Throughout this book we have endeavoured to become what Elias Canetti calls writers – Dichter – whose role it is to explore and comment upon experience without fixation. The writer does not collect or build things, but tries to encounter and absorb them as they are, in all their inconsistency and contradiction, and all their latency and potential. The writer is not someone who propounds models if by such are meant institutional designs and outcomes that are deemed desirable irrespective of circumstance. This is the impetus behind our advocacy of strategy without design, a deliberately tense title – unattainable, of course. We all use designs all the time. This book is designed using chapter structures and attributions; it recommends states of affairs; it uses structured arguments to attempt to elicit sympathy. Being without design acts as an impetus, however; it encourages endeavour by those for whom it resonates to strive towards it, ways of thought without the prospect of an end point, or even a resolution. It is in the striving that we experience plenitude, that new qualities arise. For the economist Thorstein Veblen, something akin to this striving, this resistance to fixed goals and ideals, was expressed in his oft-used phrase ‘Whatever is, is wrong’. The more entrenched, orthodox and generally established an idea was the greater the likelihood of its being wrong, because, whilst its appropriateness was always an upshot of our future-oriented activity, its formal or accepted sense languished in unexamined academic and commercial habit.
4 - The ‘practice turn’ in strategy research
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 112-132
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The habitus, a product of history, produces individual and collective practices… It ensures the active presence of past experiences, which, deposited in each organism…, tend to guarantee the ‘correctness’ of practices and their constancy over time.
Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, p.54We argued in the last chapter that the uncertainties and complexities of life as are experienced by strategic actors are not containable in the way that economic theory and strategy design theory suppose. Even with ceteris paribus conditions in place, the choice sets, judgements and outcomes presented as being logical for the individual rational human agent or collective are riven with empirical exceptions, unseen ecological influences and communally felt limitations. Any theoretical understanding entails recognition of how we repress, discount or ignore elements of experience in order to attain, sustain or restore a sense of coherence. The distinctions we made between strong and weak individualism, between technē and phronesis, and between purposeful and purposive action push us towards recognizing that acting strategically is as much an instinctual, habitual and unthought response to experience as it is a deliberate, planned effort. In understanding economic activities such as trade and entities such as markets and prices, therefore, we ought to recognize them as socially organized, complex and open-ended institutional facts. Within such an environment, strategic action is not about an observer gathering information concerning an external environment in order to manage resources so as to occupy an advantageous position (a niche market, a rare capability, a competitive opportunity) but about attaining and sustaining a set of organized relationships nested within wider systems in order to experience the possibility of doing things differently and, potentially, better.
7 - The silent efficacy of indirect action
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- Strategy without Design
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 186-208
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The history of strategy is, fundamentally, a record of the application and evolution of the indirect approach… The indirect approach is as fundamental to the realm of politics as it is to the realm of sex.
Basil Liddell-Hart, Strategy: The Indirect Approach, pp.xix–xxIn the last chapter we argued that wayfinding provided a different and almost counter-intuitive take on what it means to act strategically. The underlying spirit of wayfinding is a sense of the positivity of incompleteness: one is under way, and in being under way the ends of one's actions emerge as one goes along. We only know as we go. Contrary to the navigational mindset, this openness and absence is not something to lament or correct; indeed, it is not a limitation at all, but a part-expression of our natural condition of dwelling that has steadily been hidden from us as we have become more and more technologically advanced. As the examples of Graeme Obree and Google show, the existence of an as yet indefinable space (something that is yet to be ordered technologically) constitutes a realm of potentiality that allows wayfinders to establish an authentic imprint on unfolding situations and, in so doing, to unexpectedly effect a dramatic change in the course of events through their ingenuity and local coping actions.
In this chapter, we return to our initial observation that somehow, paradoxically, it is these locally initiated spontaneous responses, the ad hoc ‘making dos’, that often, surprisingly, generate longer-term sustainable outcomes than more deliberate and direct forms of intervention.
Preface
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp ix-xii
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This book arose out of a vague suspicion that much of what we call ‘strategy’ involves retrospective sense-making: that there is a tendency to impute purposefulness design and deliberate forethought to what are often locally embedded coping initiatives in which the primary concern is the alleviation of immediate pressing problems, with little thought about broader eventual outcomes. The tendency is rife. Strategy-making is typically assumed to be a deliberate, planned and purposeful activity. Conscious choice, instrumental rationality and goal-directed behaviour are supposed to underpin strategic action. Successful outcomes are attributed to the systematic carrying out of a pre-thought programme of actions while failure is, conversely, attributed to the lack of proper planning. Clearly, this view of strategy as being something consciously designed prior to practical engagement with the world helps to explain many instances of individual and organizational success, particularly under stable, predictable conditions and in the short term. Nonetheless, the possibility that successful strategies may also emerge inadvertently as unintended consequences of human action and interaction remains. In what is now considered a seminal contribution to the strategy debate, Henry Mintzberg and James Waters distinguish between deliberate and emergent strategies and maintain that, in the case of the latter, an ‘unintended’ strategic order may arise even in the clear absence of deliberate planning and design. Mintzberg and Waters, however, do not go on to explore or elaborate on how it might be that, notwithstanding such lack of intention, strategy could still emerge spontaneously in practice.
Introduction
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- Strategy without Design
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 1-24
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Large streams from little fountains flow,
Tall oaks from little acorns grow.
Old English proverbBoundless – this vast heap earth,
this bottomless heaven,
how perfectly boundless.
T'ao Ch'ien, Elegy for Myself (translated by David Hinton)In this introductory chapter we document several instances of successful accomplishments in a number of business and social spheres and show how we recognize the emergence of a coherent strategy even though the people involved may not have deliberately intended it to be so. This leads us to justify our belief in the plausibility of what we call here ‘strategy without design’, in which invisible coordinating forces appear to work to bring together fruitful outcomes indirectly and circuitously through a plethora of local coping actions. We also show that, conversely, when well-intentioned attempts to deliberately design and engineer a desired strategic outcome dominate concerns they are frequently ineffective and at times may even unexpectedly produce disastrous consequences. Paradoxically, the more direct and deliberate the effort applied the less sustainable the eventual outcome. Conversely, systematic, sustainable, longer-term accomplishments are often a consequence of attending to small, seemingly insignificant details through local, everyday coping actions.
Reaching for the ground
In 1974 the country of Bangladesh experienced a severe famine that threatened the livelihood of thousands in the rural villages. Amidst this chaos and human catastrophe, a Bangladeshi professor at the University of Chittagong was so touched by the plight of the families affected by the famine that he decided to make a small personal loan of US$27 to a group of forty-two local households so that they could begin the process of self-help by producing small items for sale, hence earning much-needed income without the burdens associated with predatory lending.
Frontmatter
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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2 - Economic agency and steps to ecological awareness
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- Strategy without Design
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 57-90
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[T]he resolution of contraries reveals a world in which personal identity merges into all the processes of relationship in some vast ecology.
Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, p.306In chapter 1 we showed how the idea of spontaneous order can account for the emergence of coherent patterns of behaviour as well as centralized planning and design. We traced this idea of spontaneous emergence to the thoughts of ancient philosophers and discussed how subsequent important writers from a variety of backgrounds and disciplines have taken up this argument and elaborated upon it. This eschewal of the necessity for deliberate intention and pre-planning to account for the emergence of social and strategic orders opens up a new and difficult conceptual territory, however, for those looking to explain how it is that we as human beings can come to know about and influence our world under such conditions of uncertainty. If strategy amounts to anything, it is predicated upon a sense of being able to do something, of intervening deliberately to change the course of events in one's favour. If the conditions in which agents act are themselves inherently unstable, however, then there seems little to distinguish between strategic activity and chance and serendipity. This chapter is devoted to the further exploration of this question.
We consider the strategic dangers in deferring to a view of the world in which the individual is construed as an isolate, detached entity who engages with and seeks to control the world around him-/herself – an epistemological stance of methodological individualism.
Notes
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- 08 October 2009, pp 213-242
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5 - Building and dwelling: two ways of understanding strategy
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- Strategy without Design
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 133-158
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The ordinary practitioners…live ‘down below’… [T]heir knowledge…is as blind as that of lovers in each other's arms.
Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, p.93In the previous chapter we showed how research on strategy, and in particular the recent strategy-as-practice movement, retains affiliations with a strong methodological individualism. We then moved on to show how the practice turn in social theory offers an alternative way of understanding strategy-in-practice in terms that are compatible with a weakened notion of human agency and with the kind of non-deliberate purposive action that we associate here with undesigned strategy. In this chapter, therefore, we draw from Martin Heidegger and the Heideggerian commentator Hubert Dreyfus, as well as sociologists and social anthropologists such as Pierre Bourdieu, Michel de Certeau and Tim Ingold, to identify two distinct modes of engaging with the world strategically that, following Heidegger, we term the ‘building’ and ‘dwelling’. Although Heidegger conceives of these modes as being naturally sympathetic, he suggests that modern life, and notably the rise and spread of technological sophistication, has wrested them apart, making them almost antithetical. The building mode is exemplified by the agent-strategist consciously constructing mental representations and models of the world and only then acting upon them. Therefore those studying strategy in this vein presume action to be deliberate, purposeful and goal-directed: agent intentions, meanings and interpretations feature prominently in explaining strategic behaviour. It presumes that actions taken are instrumentally motivated and outcome-oriented (poiēsis); they are synonymous with making.
Strategy without Design
- The Silent Efficacy of Indirect Action
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009
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Strategy exhibits a pervasive commitment to the belief that the best approach to adopt in dealing with affairs of the world is to confront, overcome and subjugate things to conform to our will, control and eventual mastery. Performance is about sustaining distinctiveness. This direct and deliberate approach draws inspiration from ancient Greek roots and has become orthodoxy. Yet there are downsides. This book shows why. Using examples from the world of business, economics, military strategy, politics and philosophy, it argues that success may inadvertently emerge from the everyday coping actions of a multitude of individuals, none of whom intended to contribute to any preconceived design. A consequence of this claim is that a paradox exists in strategic interventions, one that no strategist can afford to ignore. The more single-mindedly a strategic goal is sought, the more likely such calculated instrumental action eventually works to undermine its own initial success.
Index
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 243-248
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6 - Strategy as ‘wayfinding’
- Robert C. H. Chia, Robin Holt, University of Liverpool
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- 22 January 2010
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- 08 October 2009, pp 159-185
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[W]e know as we go, not before we go (ambulatory knowing)…the world is not ready-made for life to occupy … It is rather laid out along paths of movement… To find one's way is to advance along a line of growth, in a world…whose future configuration can never be fully known.
Tim Ingold, The Perception of the Environment, pp.230–231(emphasis in original)In the previous chapter we identified two distinct modes of engaging with the world strategically, which we termed building and dwelling. In the building mode the agent-strategist is presumed to construct mental representations of the world prior to any practical engagement with it. The dwelling mode of engagement, on the other hand, consists of local adaptations and ingenuity in everyday practical coping, which constitute the kind of micro-strategizing associated with the practice approach to strategy. In acting strategically on an everyday basis, therefore, an agent is acting purposively to deal with immediate concerns at hand but doing so in habituated ways that are consistent with and reinforcing his or her own sense of identity. He or she is also aware, potentially, of the limits of this pragmatic engagement, and of how things might be encountered other than simply as equipment for human ends.
Whereas in the next chapter we develop the sense of strategic limit brought about by dwelling amid things phronetically, in this chapter we begin to develop the dwelling approach by introducing the notion of strategy as a process of wayfinding, in contrast to the conventional idea of strategy-making as a navigational process.