When protoscoleces of Echinococcus multilocularis were cultured in vitro, under axenic conditions in either monophasic or diphasic media, segmentation was suppressed in most organisms, some 70–80% of which developed into unsegmented, monozoic forms with a complete set of sexually mature male and female genitalia. The most striking feature of monozoic worms was the large lateral swelling produced by the cirrus sac the effect being to produce organisms with an unusual asymmetric shape. Worms which did not become monozoic either (a) underwent some somatic growth, developed two sets of genitalia and became ‘pseudosogmented’, i.e. with the inter-proglottid membranes absent or poorly defined, or (b) became vesicular or abnormal. The mechanisms which could be involved in the suppression of somatic growth and the induction of the monozoic condition, are examined in terms of cell lineage. The possible significance of these results in understanding the evolution of the cestodes is discussed.

Worm free lambs 2–4 months old were given a single infection of 50 000 Haemonchus contortus larvae. The changes in packed red cell volume were compared with those of uninfected sheep and the infected sheep were divided into two groups according to the rate of change of packed cell volume. In group 1, packed cell volume fell sharply from the 10th day of infection and the sheep eventually died. In group 2, the fall was less marked and the packed cell volume returned to normal after about 40 days. The rates of increase of parasite body length and dry weight were compared for the two groups. Parasites in group 1 sheep grew more slowly than their group 2 contemporaries. Accurate planning of metabolic studies on H. contortus was made possible by using this information to predict the course of an infection and the size of the worms. Parasite development was also measured in sheep for which the packed cell volume was not recorded. Computer analysis showed that adult worm length increase did not follow a simple growth pattern starting from the last ecdysis, but consisted of a rapid elongation followed by a simple negative exponential increase. Dry weight increase also followed a negative exponential during the second phase. Measurements of dry weight as a percentage of wet weight indicated that the rapid elongation was possibly linked with cell enlargement by the uptake of water.

Similar survival characteristics were demonstrated for hexacanths of Hymenolepis diminuta incubated in Tyrode's solution with or without a glucose supplement (0–50 mg/ml).

The survival rate of hexacanths in all media tested was shown to be age-dependent and led to a maximum life-span of approximately 11 h.

The amount of energy reserves, as measured by microdensitometric determinations of PAS + material, declined rapidly in time to a plateau at approximately 8 h. Residual PAS + matter present beyond that period was interpreted as structural and thus non-utilizable material.

The rate of activity as measured by hook movements declined more rapidly, and continuous hook cycles were rarely observed after 2 h and ceased after 4 h. A close correlation was demonstrated between the decline in PAS + material and the total number of hook cycles completed per unit of time.

The quantitative results on survival, energy reserves and activity are discussed in relation to the penetration of hexacanths into the haemocoele of the intermediate host.

When measured 56 days postinfection the length, wet weight and dry-weight of Hymenolepis diminuta were all found to decrease with increasing number of cysticercoids given up to 20. The mean position of the worms in 10, 12 and 20 worm infections is significantly posterior to that of 1, 2 and 5 worm infections and the worms are attached over a wider area of the intestine.

Egg production by the worms was followed up to day 56 postinfection; the number of eggs produced per worm and even per rat decreased with increasing population density. Thus the best way to get most eggs and to maintain the parasite in the laboratory is to have rats infected with only one tapeworm.

Rats given 1–20 cysticercoids showed a mean recovery of 100–65%, while rats given 40–200 cysticercoids showed a mean recovery ranging from 13 to 2%. In addition to ‘normal’ worms, defined as worms > 10 mm, small, most probably destrobilated, worms were found. In the 50 and 100 cysticercoid infections, worm recoveries were, respectively, 8% ‘normal’, 16% small, and 2% ‘normal’, 5% small. From the significantly lower recovery from heavy infections it is concluded that a deleterious factor is operating during the 8 weeks after the infection.

Schistosoma mansoni cercariae were incubated for 3–5 h at 37°C in various test solutions, and the rate and extent of conversion of th ecercariae to schistosomula were determined. Criteria used to identify schistosomula included: (1) loss of cercariai tail, (2) viability of organisms in saline but not in water, (3) pre-acetabular gland evacuation and (4) ability to survive in culture.

The intensity of Plasmodium berghei infections decreases as the age of the rat host increases. The nature of this ‘age immunity’ was investigated. No experimental support was found for innate resistance involving either serum non-antibody factors or changes in the erythrocytes that inhibit parasites in older rats. A cross reacting immune response active against P. berghei was not found. Evidence is presented which shows that rats less than 7 weeks old lack at least part of the functional immunological apparatus by which older rats produce a protective immune response. It is suggested that the defect might involve T lymphocytes.

The development of strains of Eimeria maxima resistant to buquinolate, methyl benzoquate, clopidol, sulphaquinoxaline and robenidine is described. It was not possible to standardize a schedule of inoculations and drug administration, which would enable the development of resistance to the different drugs to be compared directly. Resistance developed most readily to the quinolones. One robenidine-resistant strain proved to be drug-dependent. Dinitolmide showed unusual effects upon sporogony and three attempts to develop resistance against this activity failed. Chicks previously immunized with the parent strain were completely protected against infection with the drug-resistant strains.

Opaque or darkened areas (DA) of variable size and position occur on Hymenolepis diminuta in mice and rats. In mice DA normally first appear in the neck region of the worm but subsequently they appear elsewhere and increase in number until destrobilation or worm expulsion. The posterior of destrobilated worms is often darkened. In the more immunogenic infections with six cysticercoids there are more DA per worm than in infections with one cysticercoid. DA are areas of the tegument with a homogeneous increase in electron density; abnormal mitochondria; reduced granular endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complexes and discoidal secretory bodies; and accumulation of lipid droplets. DA disappear from worms maintained for up to 4 h in Hanks' balanced salt solution and can be induced by mechanical damage to the worms.

As the numbers of DA increase with the duration and intensity of infection and have similarities with types of cell injury, they are probably sites of worm pathology induced by host immunity.

The fecundity and longevity of Nippostrongylus brasiliensis was prolonged in mice previously infected with Nematospiroides dubius only when the former developed from the larval stage in those mice. Such worms appeared to be less immunogenic than worms which developed in mice never exposed to N. dubius.

It is proposed that prolonged fecundity and longevity resulted from an adaptation undertaken by the worms in the face of host antibodies which had been developed against the pre-existing N. dubius infection.