State Medical Boards (SMBs) can take severe disciplinary actions (e.g., license revocation or suspension) against physicians who commit egregious wrongdoing in order to protect the public. However, there is noteworthy variability in the extent to which SMBs impose severe disciplinary action. In this manuscript, we present and synthesize a subset of 11 recommendations based on findings from our team’s larger consensus-building project that identified a list of 56 policies and legal provisions SMBs can use to better protect patients from egregious wrongdoing by physicians.

Terracing is found widely in the Mediterranean and in other hilly and mountainous regions of the world. Yet while archaeological attention to these ‘mundane’ landscape features has grown, they remain understudied, particularly in Northern Europe. Here, the authors present a multidisciplinary study of terraces in the Breamish Valley, Northumberland. The results date their construction to the Early to Middle Bronze Age, when they were built by cutting back the hillside, stone clearance and wall construction. Environmental evidence points to their use for cereal cultivation. The authors suggest that the construction and use of these terraces formed part of an Early to Middle Bronze Age agricultural intensification, which may have been both demographically and culturally driven.

Hospital healthcare workers (HCWs) are at increased risk of contracting COVID-19 infection. We aimed to determine the seroprevalence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) antibodies in HCWs in Ireland. Two tertiary referral hospitals in Irish cities with diverging community incidence and seroprevalence were identified; COVID-19 had been diagnosed in 10.2% and 1.8% of staff respectively by the time of the study (October 2020). All staff of both hospitals (N = 9038) were invited to participate in an online questionnaire and blood sampling for SARS-CoV-2 antibody testing. Frequencies and percentages for positive SARS-CoV-2 antibody were calculated and adjusted relative risks (aRR) for participant characteristics were calculated using multivariable regression analysis. In total, 5788 HCWs participated (64% response rate). Seroprevalence of antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 was 15% and 4.1% in hospitals 1 and 2, respectively. Thirty-nine percent of infections were previously undiagnosed. Risk for seropositivity was higher for healthcare assistants (aRR 2.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.4–3.0), nurses (aRR: 1.6, 95% CI 1.1–2.2), daily exposure to patients with COVID-19 (aRR: 1.6, 95% CI 1.2–2.1), age 18–29 years (aRR: 1.4, 95% CI 1.1–1.9), living with other HCWs (aRR: 1.3, 95% CI 1.1–1.5), Asian background (aRR: 1.3, 95% CI 1.0–1.6) and male sex (aRR: 1.2, 95% CI 1.0–1.4). The HCW seroprevalence was six times higher than community seroprevalence. Risk was higher for those with close patient contact. The proportion of undiagnosed infections call for robust infection control guidance, easy access to testing and consideration of screening in asymptomatic HCWs. With emerging evidence of reduction in transmission from vaccinated individuals, the authors strongly endorse rapid vaccination of all HCWs.

Resolved emission from gas-phase methanol can reveal the abundance and distribution of the comet-forming ice reservoir in protoplanetary disks. ALMA Cycle 4 observations of four transitions of gas-phase methanol in TW Hya allow the first model-independent determination of the rotational temperature of methanol in a prototoplanetary disk. The data confirm that the methanol is rotationally cold (Trot < 50 K), and well constrain the column density to 2 × 1012 cm−2. Astrochemical models will constrain the chemical origin of methanol in TW Hya.

We present ALMA observations of four different molecular species in showcasing their potential as tracers of physical and chemical conditions in planet forming Herbig Ae disks.

The Earth is dramatically carbon poor comparing to the interstellar medium and the proto-sun. The carbon to silicon ratios in inner solar system objects show a correlation with heliocentric distance, which suggests that the destruction of carbon grains has occurred before planet formation. To examine this hypothesis, we perform model calculations using a chemical reaction network under the physical conditions typical of protoplanetary disks. Our results show that, when carbonaceous grains are destroyed and converted into the gas phase and the gas becomes carbon-rich, the abundances of carbon-bearing species such as HCN and carbon-chain molecules, increase dramatically near the midplane, while oxygen-bearing species such as H2O and CO2 are depleted. The carbon to silicon ratios obtained by our model calculations qualitatively reproduce the observed gradient with disk radius, but there are some quantitative discrepancies from the observed values of the solar system objects. We adopted the model of a disk around a Herbig Ae star and performed line radiative transfer calculations to examine the effect of carbon grain destruction through observations with ALMA. The results indicate that HCN, H13 CN and c-C3 H2 may be good tracers of this process.

Observationally locating the position of the H2O snowline in protoplanetary disks is crucial for understanding planetesimal and planet formation processes, and the origin of water on the Earth. In our studies, we conducted calculations of chemical reactions and water line profiles in protoplanetary disks, and identified that ortho/para-H216O, H218O lines with small Einstein A coefficients and relatively high upper state energies are dominated by emission from the hot midplane region inside the H2O snowline. Therefore, through analyzing their line profiles the position of the H2O snowline can be located. Moreover, because the number density of the H218O is much smaller than that of H216O, the H218O lines can trace deeper into the disk and thus they are potentially better probes of the exact position of the H2O snowline in disk midplane.

Gas-phase methanol was recently detected in a protoplanetary disk for the first time with ALMA. The peak abundance and distribution of methanol observed in TW Hya differed from that predicted by chemical models. Here, the chemistry of methanol gas and ice is calculated using a physical model tailored for TW Hya with the aim to contrast the results with the recent detection in this source. New pathways for the formation of larger complex molecules (e.g., ethylene glycol) are included in an updated chemical model, as well as the fragmentation of methanol ice upon photodesorption. It is found that including fragmentation upon photodesorption improves the agreement between the peak abundance reached in the chemical models with that observed in TW Hya (∼10−11 with respect to H2); however, the model predicts that the peak in emission resides a factor of 2 − 3 farther out in the disk than the ALMA images. Reasons for the persistent differences in the gas-phase methanol distribution between models and the observations of TW Hya are discussed. These include the location of the ice reservoir which may coincide with the compact mm-dust disk (≲ 60 au) and sources of gas-phase methanol which have not yet been considered in models. The possibility of detecting larger molecules with ALMA is also explored. Calculations of the rotational spectra of complex molecules other than methanol using a parametric model constrained by the TW Hya observations suggest that the detection of individual emission lines of complex molecules with ALMA remains challenging. However, the signal-to-noise ratio can be enhanced via stacking of multiple transitions which have similar upper energy levels.

Connecting the observed composition of exoplanets to their formation sites often involves comparing the atmospheric C/O ratio to a disk midplane model with a fixed chemical composition. In this scenario chemistry during the planet formation era is not considered. However, kinetic chemical evolution during the lifetime of the gaseous disk can change the relative abundances of volatile species, thus altering the C/O ratios of planetary building blocks. In our chemical evolition models we utilize a large network of gas-phase, grain-surface and gas-grain interaction reactions, thus providing a comprehensive treatment of chemistry. The results show that, if sufficient ionisation is present, then chemistry does alter the C/O ratios of gas and ice during the epoch of planet(esimal) formation. This modifies the picture of C/O ratios in disk midplanes defined simply by volatile ice lines in a midplane of fixed chemical composition. Chemical evolution thus needs to be addressed when predicting the makeup of planets and their atmospheres.

Observationally measuring the location of the H2O snowline is crucial for understanding the planetesimal and planet formation processes, and the origin of water on Earth. The velocity profiles of emission lines from protoplanetary disks are usually affected by Doppler shift due to Keplerian rotation and thermal broadening. Therefore, the velocity profiles are sensitive to the radial distribution of the line-emitting regions. In our work (Notsu et al. 2016, 2017), we found candidate water lines to locate the position of the H2O snowline through future high-dispersion spectroscopic observations. First, we calculated the chemical composition of the disks around a T Tauri star and a Herbig Ae star using chemical kinetics. We confirmed that the abundance of H2O gas is high not only in the hot midplane region inside the H2O snowline but also in the hot surface layer and the photodesorption region of the outer disk. The position of the H2O snowline in the Herbig Ae disk exists at a larger radius from the central star than that in the T Tauri disk. Second, we calculated the H2O line profiles and identified that H2O emission lines with small Einstein A coefficients (∼10−6 − 10−3 s−1) and relatively high upper state energies (∼ 1000K) are dominated by emission from the hot midplane region inside the H2O snowline, and therefore their profiles potentially contain information which can be used to locate the position of the H2O snowline. The wavelengths of the H2O lines which are the best candidates to locate the position of the H2O snowline range from mid-infrared to sub-millimeter, and the total line fluxes tend to increase with decreasing wavelengths. We investigated the possibility of future observations using the ALMA and mid-infrared high-dispersion spectrographs (e.g., SPICA/SMI-HRS). Since the fluxes of those identified lines from a Herbig Ae disk are stronger than those of a T Tauri disk, the possibility of a successful detection is expected to increase for a Herbig Ae disk.

Molecular oxygen, O2, was recently detected in comet 67P by the ROSINA instrument on board the Rosetta spacecraft with a surprisingly high abundance of 4% relative to H2O, making O2 the fourth most abundant in comet 67P. Other volatile species with similar volatility, such as molecular nitrogen N2, were also detected by Rosetta, but with much lower abundances and much weaker correlations with water. Here, we investigate the chemical and physical origin of O2 and other volatile species using the new constraints provided by Rosetta. We follow the chemical evolution during star formation with state-of-the-art astrochemical models applied to dynamical physical models by considering three origins: i) in dark clouds, ii) during forming protostellar disks, and iii) during luminosity outbursts in disks. The models presented here favour a dark cloud (or “primordial”) grain surface chemistry origin for volatile species in comets, albeit for dark clouds which are slightly warmer and denser than those usually considered as solar system progenitors.

The Protoplanetary Discussions conference—held in Edinburgh, UK, from 2016 March 7th–11th—included several open sessions led by participants. This paper reports on the discussions collectively concerned with the multi-physics modelling of protoplanetary discs, including the self-consistent calculation of gas and dust dynamics, radiative transfer, and chemistry. After a short introduction to each of these disciplines in isolation, we identify a series of burning questions and grand challenges associated with their continuing development and integration. We then discuss potential pathways towards solving these challenges, grouped by strategical, technical, and collaborative developments. This paper is not intended to be a review, but rather to motivate and direct future research and collaboration across typically distinct fields based on community-driven input, to encourage further progress in our understanding of circumstellar and protoplanetary discs.

Interstellar methanol is thought to be the precursor of larger, more complex organic molecules. It holds a central role in many astrochemical models (e.g., Garrod & Herbst 2006). Methanol has also been the focus of several laboratory studies (e.g., Watanabe et al. 2004, Fuchs et al. 2009), in an effort to gain insight into grain-surface chemistry, which potentially builds chemical complexity already in the cold, dark prestellar phase. The case of methanol is a prime example of experimental work having implications on astronomical scales. Drozdovskaya et al. (2014) unified physical and chemical models to simulate infalling material during the birth of a low-mass protostar. An axisymmetric 2D semi-analytic collapse model (Visser et al. 2009), wavelength-dependent radiative transfer calculations with RADMC3D (Dullemond & Dominik 2004) and a comprehensive gas-grain chemical network (Walsh et al. 2014) were used to study two modes of protoplanetary disk formation.