To date there have been few studies on equine personality, with many equine studies on individual differences focussing on the measurement of temperament. Personality is defined by Pervin and John (1997, ) as “Those characteristics of the person that account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving” and is different to temperament in that it has a greater emphasis on social aspects of behaviour. Interest in this area of research has recently increased, which could be attributed to the potential implementation of personality assessment in management practices, welfare issues and potential applications in equine veterinary medicine (Mills, 1998).

Assessment of animal personality often involves using human raters to assess the personality of animals familiar to them. In order to demonstrate reliable personality data three criteria should be met, these are as follows; 1) assessments made by independent observers must agree with one another, 2) these assessments must predict behaviours and real-world outcomes and 3) observer ratings must be shown to reflect genuine attributes of the individual rated and not just the observers’ implicit theories about personality (Kenrick and Funder, 1988; Gosling and Vazire, 2002).

The majority of horses in the U.K. are confined to a stable at some point in their life. If the environment of an individual is unacceptable, abnormal behaviours can result as the horse's way of coping. This could potentially decrease the welfare of the individual due to reduced health caused by the performance of locomotor and, or, oral stereotypies (Nicol 1999, Waters et al., 2002, Garrett 2002). Studies have shown the stable environment (and the management methods usually associated with it) to frequently affect the time budgets of horses in a way consistent with lack of stimulation (Young, 2003). Many products claim to provide the horse with stimulation and so reduce ‘boredom’. The effectiviness of these products remains uncertain although some studies have shown changes to time budgets on their addition to the stable environment (Winskill et al., 1996; Henderson and Waran, 2001). However, little research has been done, on what qualities these objects should possess.

Colour is an important feature that increases the visibility of objects and may aid recognition of con-specifics. The adaptive significance of the ability to utilize colour cues has been demonstrated in a number of species, in particular in relation to food selection. The evolution of trichromatic colour vision in primates has been associated with the advantages that it provided in the selection of yellow and orange fruits (Mollon, 1989) or tender young red foliage (Dominy and Lucas, 2001) from a background of green. The horse is a generalist herbivore that must both select nutritious plants and avoid toxic ones. Familiarity is an important factor in this selection process (Augner et al., 1998), although it is not clear exactly what features are used to recognise previously ingested and “safe” herbage.

The horse has been shown to possess dichromatic colour vision. There are two types of cone photopigment in the equine retina, with spectral peaks at 429 and 545 nanometres (Macuda, 2000).

The Irish Sport Horse has commanded huge respect amongst horse owners and competitors of other nations, winning international, championship and Olympic medals for Great Britain (Shear L’eau, Supreme Rock), USA (Custom Made and Brazil (Special Envoy). The Irish Studbook continues to top the World Breeders Federation of Sport Horse (WBFSH) rankings for event horses based on competition results. The production of young horses through competition (training, novice and intermediate levels) has been an acknowledged format for identifying horses with the potential to excel at the highest levels of competition. However increasing production costs may be affecting the profitability of sport horse production. Reduced profit margins or possible negative returns may reduce the number of producers and this combined with the scientific improvements within other studbooks may threaten to reduce the potential for the Irish Sport Horse to retain its WBFSH event horse ranking. Furthermore, prize money offered in novice and intermediate competition appear to represent only nominal returns and fail to meet the costs of training and production.

The assessment of dressage tests within equine competition is undertaken via a judge (or panel of up to three judges at the higher levels of the sport). Judges assess and award marks for a series of pre-determined movements; such marks are given in line with criteria laid down by relevant governing equestrian organisations. Additionally, judges undergo training and assessment designed to enable them to adhere to the required guidelines as closely as possible. The equestrian sport of eventing is a three phased sport consisting of the completion of a dressage test, speed and endurance test (cross country) and round of show jumps. The speed and endurance phase is considered the most important and influential phase of competition; the sport's governing body, the International Equestrian Federation (FEI), describe it as the ‘major test’ (FEI). Various authors (Duell and Russek-Cohen, 1995; Whitaker et al, 2004; Whitaker and Hill, 2005) have demonstrated that the dressage phase contributes to the largest percentage of penalty points within the overall final penalty score from all the phases of competition.

Eventing is a three phased equestrian sport involving the completion of dressage, speed and endurance phases (cross country course) and show jumping phase. Penalty points are accrued during each phase of competition;. Competitors are ranked within competition on the basis of overall penalty points accrued (lowest points – winning the competition). The relative influence of each phase of the competition is currently being debated by the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) and its membership. The reasons for this, amongst other factors, include concerns over equine welfare, financial commitment to infrastructure and accessibility of nations developing within the sport. The essence of eventing, a speed and endurance contest, has been based around the cross country phase; the FEI refers to the phase as ‘the major test’ (FEI 2003) and British Eventing (BE) state ‘‘the relative influence on the whole competition exerted by dressage should be slightly more than that exerted by the show jumping, but considerably less than that exerted by the cross country’’ (BE 2004).

Non-completion of equestrian competition by competitors may occur for a variety of reasons. However, limited work has been conducted to establish the likely factors causing non-completion. Non-completion by a competitor needs to be carefully considered within any overall analysis of competition data. Non-completing competitors within sporting competitions are potential complicating and confounding factors in the analysis of performance data (Whitaker and Hill, in press). Within a population it is important to establish if there are systematic or nonrandom reasons for non completion; or whether non-completion is entirely a random event (Little and Rubin 1987). If systematic or nonrandom effects are occurring in competition they need to be considered carefully in the wider analysis of the whole population. This will include the application of appropriate statistical methods to the data sets. These may include such techniques as Regression Analysis, Approximate Bayesian Bootstrap, Hot Deck Method or Summary of Single Input Method (ibid).

The Burghley Young Event Horse (BYEH) competition attempts to identify young horses with the potential to excel in the sport of eventing. The competition includes a basic dressage test, a show jumping course and a conformation assessment. Judges are advised to reward potential rather than the degree of training or rider ability. The main aim of this study was to determine whether a correlation exists between scores achieved in the finals of the four and five-year-old sections of the final of the BYEH competition and British Eventing (BE) points achieved by age eight. A second aim was to determine whether or not the BYEH scores of horses that go on to achieve points in BE differed significantly from those that do not.

Data were obtained from the Burghley Direct Web Page and from records supplied by British Eventing. Data were analysed for 43 four-year-olds and 77 five-year-olds that competed between the years 1998 and 2001. The BYEH scores for horses with and without BE records were compared using Student's t-test.

Surface type has a recognised effect on the biomechanics of a horse, yet suitability of surfaces to discipline has not been fully substantiated. Ideal exercise surface conditions should be a balance of energy absorption to minimise concussion and energy return to aid performance (Barrey et al., 1999) and these conditions vary according to type of work. Greater force on a particular limb will increase the probability of injury, especially in sports that are repetitive in nature, such as show jumping. It is well known that high impact forces occur during the landing phase of jumping (Meershoek et al., 2001); investigation of this phase is therefore integral to understanding the effect that surface has on horses that jump. Maximal fetlock extension may be useful as an indicator of magnitude of ground reaction forces (Clayton, 1997). This means that in-field studies can be used to measure maximal fetlock extension as a guide to forces placed on the limb.

The influence of Natural Selection on the evolution of the horse (Equus callabus) is minimal due to its close association with humans. Instead Artificial Selection is commonly imposed through selection for features such as a ‘breed standard’ or competitive ability. It has long been considered to be useful if indicators of characteristics such as physical ability could be identified. Kidd (1902) suggested that the hair coverings of animals were closely related to their lifestyle, whether they were active or passive. In 1973 Smith and Gong concluded that hair whorl (trichloglyph) pattern and human behaviour is linked since hair patterning is determined at the same time as the brain develops in the foetus. More recently Grandin et al. (1995), Randle (1998) and Lanier et al. (2001) linked features of facial hair whorls to behaviour and production in cattle. Hair whorl features have also been related to temperament in equines (Randle et al., 2003).

The Charity Commission website lists in excess of 100 equine charities (Charity Commission, 2003) and this figure does not include those whose annual income is under £1,000. The size and nature of equine related charities varies enormously. In 2002 the top 6 equine charities (listed below) had a combined income of £40m and were responsible for rescuing approximately 600 horses, ponies and donkeys (Peplow, 2003).

• Blue Cross

• International League for the Protection of Horses

• Home of Rest for Horses

• The Donkey Sanctuary

• Redwings

• Horse and Pony Protection Association

Whilst these larger charities have grown organically over the years, many smaller charities are failing to survive and are in some situations having to be ‘rescued’ themselves by their larger counterparts. The public, consisting of present and potential donors, are offered a vast choice of charities to support. Philanthropic behaviour has at best stagnated in recent years (Sargeant & Lee, 2002).

The equine passport legislation is a comparatively new scheme that requires all horses to have a passport by 28th February 2005 (Defra, 2004). The equine passport is thought to have had a major impact on the industry in the United Kingdom, however the extent of this is, as yet, unknown due to the lack of current research. The UK Government hopes that the passport scheme will monitor horses that have been treated with medication and guarantee that they are not slaughtered for human consumption (Frank, 2003, Defra, 2004). Whilst the scheme originated from European food safety legislation (Ellis, 2003), the UK Government believes that there are other benefits attached to the equine passport, such as gaining comprehensive records about the equine population in the UK, which is crucial information required for epidemiological reasons (Mellor et al., 1999). The information will provide a denominator for the assessment of disease rates, and which areas of the country may be under threat.

Herbal medicines are used in the horse to treat disease and help sustain optimum health within the body (Fleming, 2002). The popularity of complementary alternative medicines (CAM) in humans, such as herbal medicine, is continually growing across the United Kingdom (Ernst and White, 2000) and worldwide (Maclennon et al., 2003). The ability of alternative medicine to provide relief of specific symptoms to ailments is thought to be a major factor contributing to the rise of CAM (Pascoe, 2002). Much research has been conducted assessing the market for herbal products in humans, but little has been done on equine herbal products. Research by Astin (1998) suggests that a significant predictor of CAM use in humans is the buyers’ level of education; at least 50 % of respondents using CAM had degrees. A higher level of education allowed buyers to gain an understanding of the use of CAM and how it works.

As a result of long-term work by Polish breeders the special type called ‘Polish type’ of Arabian horses has been created. Polish Arabians differ from their ancestors who were bred by Bedouins in the deserts of Arabia. The main differences are slightly more height, better stature and correct conformation. The process of Arabian improvement is on going and must be adapted to modern trends and conditions which is reflected in changes of biometric parameters (Budzynski et al., 1976). Height at withers HW (cm), girth circumference GC (cm) and cannon bone circumference CC (cm) are basic measurements that make it possible to compare horses born at different times and in different studs. The objective of this study was to evaluate the changes in biometric parameters of Arabian horses bred in Poland after the World War II until now.

This study used data concerning basic measurements (HW, GC and CC) of 1218 Arabian horses (1076 mares and 142 stallions measured at 5 years of life) used in Polish state breeding after the World War II.

Thoroughbreds (TB) are treated as one of the most noble horse breeds in the world. Huge financial outlays are involved in breeding, rearing and training TBs which result in the “real breeding and racing industries” associated with Thoroughbred horses. Exhausting training, early exploitation at the race track and narrow selection toward race performance has led to deterioration of other important traits such as reproduction. Compared to other breeds TB mares exhibit more problems with fertility, abortions and foal mortality. It has been shown that these mares are characterized by higher percent of twin pregnancies and lower rearing percentage. Many authors suggest that the worst reproductive indicators are influenced by the mare's age, length and sequence of mare's heat and its season of occurrence and also the sequence of pregnancies (Bruck et al., 1993; Luszczynski et al., 2004a; Hemberg et al., 2004; Luszczynski et al., 2003; Luszczynski et al., 2004b). Also the intensive racing usability has a specific effect on the nervous system, hormonal balance and reproductive functions of further foals’ mothers. The objective of this study was the evaluation of dependencies between TB mares’ racing performance and their reproductive indicators.

The chestnut stallion Monogramm was born in 1985 at Kay Patterson stud in Oregon (USA); by Negatraz out of Monogramma by Knippel. His basic measurements were: height at withers – 152 cm, girth circumference -170 cm, cannon circumference 18.5 cm. PASB (Polish Arabian Stud Book) T. XIII, Suppl. I, page 85; He came from USA to Poland on 04.12.1992.

Monogramm drew the attention of Michalów stud director, Mr Ignacy Jaworowski, who wanted to extend the sire line of great stallions Ofir and Witraz. This chestnut stallion was distinguished among his rivals by his beauty, harmony and great movement (Jaworowski 2001). After long discussion a contract was negotiated for his stay in Poland, particularly in Michalów stud, where he was used for covering mares for two seasons 1993-1994. His frozen semen was then used between 1995-1997. This valuable grandson of Bask by his best son Negatraz is from dam line of Mammona mare (by Ofir) (Chmiel 2002).

Approximately 8% of European performance horses engage in cribbiting behaviour (McGreevy et al.,1995, Redbo et al., 1998), a trait which can reduce both financial value and welfare status of the animal. An increase in prevalence to 26% was reported in those families originating from crib-biting sires (Vecchiotti and Galantini 1986), tentatively implying that a genetic component may be involved. Indeed, in a herd of Przewalski's horse, there was an 84% chance of offspring crib-biting if they originated from cribbing parents (Marsden and Henderson 1994). Finally, hereditary transmission has been more reliably demonstrated in the rodent, where stereotypy can be induced following 9 days of food restriction in the highly inbred DBA mouse strain, but not the C57 strain (Cabib and Bonaventura 1997) suggesting 1) propagation of a genetic component within the DBA genotype and 2) the requirement of an environmental stressor for stereotypy development. In the rodent model this genetic pre-disposition manifests physiologically as a facilitation of dopamine transmission within the mesolimbic projection following a period of stress (Cabib et al., 1998).

Crib-biting horses were recently shown to exhibit increased activity within the mesoaccumbens dopamine pathway (McBride and Hemmings 2005). Given the multi-factored functionality of the mesoaccumbens system, this alteration in dopamine physiology may have an effect on other aspects of the behavioural repertoire. For instance, in experiments which sought to ascertain the function of the nucleus accumbens in extinction learning, nucleus accumbens dopamine efflux decreased in a linear fashion following unrewarded operant responses, whilst exitotoxic (ibotenic acid) lesions of the nucleus accumbens had the ability to impair response extinction (Ichikawa et al. (2004). Thus, a role for this brain region in extinction learning is certainly implicated. The aim of this study was to determine if facilitated accumbens dopamine transmission affects learning characteristics in the horse. From the aforementioned discussion it was hypothesised that enhanced accumbens dopamine transmission would potentially delay the linear reduction in dopamine release associated with extinction of an operant response. Or, from a functional perspective, cause heightened salience of a conditioned stimulus thereby delaying the onset of extinction learning.

The moisture content of horse hoof horn is important as it affects its function, quality and mechanical properties. It is believed for horse hoof horn that there is an inverse relationship between the amount of water present and stiffness, or the ability of hoof horn to resist deformation. The majority of studies, until the work of Leach (1980) and Douglas et al. (1996) concentrated on quantitative values for moisture content for the full hoof wall depth (HWD) for horse hoof horn. Douglas et al. (1996) divided the hoof wall into inner and outer wall samples and showed a moisture content of 28% for the outer wall and 35% for the inner wall, confirming a dorsopalmar increase in moisture content. Whether a similar gradient exists for donkey hoof horn is not known. The existence of such a dorso-palmar moisture gradient may have a profound effect on the mechanical properties of the hoof horn and would further contribute towards the understanding of how moisture content affects the function of the hoof.

Growth and development of foals is highly influenced by different factors during the period they spend with their mothers. One of the most interesting and not really recognised phenomena is first foals’ diarrhoea called ‘heat diarrhoea’ or ‘heat scours’. This diarrhoea occurs during first 2-3 weeks after birth in most of horse breeds (Deskur et al. 1978, Gustafsson 1998). Until today there is no exact explanation of this phenomenon – most vets describe it as a pathological infection due to viruses or bacteria, parasitologists explain it as an early invasion of some nematodes, physiologists describe it as a result of changes in intestines and breeders clarify it as a result of changing in mare's milk composition related to her heat. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between first diarrhoea occurrence, its duration and intensity and mares’ milk composition.

The research was carried out on 30 Arabian mares and their foals. Milk samples were collected to evaluate the main components and macroelements.