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56 Dunning-Kruger Effect and Anxiety in a Mexican population
- Natalia L. Acosta, Krissy E. Smith, Tara L. Victor, David H. Hardy, Alberto L. Fernandez, Raymundo Cervantes, Ana Paula P. Quiñones, Carolina G. Castañeda, Jill Razani, Isabel D.C. Muñoz, Daniel W. Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 841-842
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Objective:
The Dunning-Krueger effect is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to overestimate their abilities in areas where they are less competent. The Cordoba Naming Test (CNT) is a 30-item confrontation naming task. Hardy and Wright (2018) conditionally validated a measure of perceived mental workload called the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). Researchers reported that workload ratings on the NASA-TLX increased with increased task demands on a cognitive task. Anxiety is known as an emotion that can make an individual more susceptible to develop a mental health condition. We examine if the Dunning-Krueger effect occurs in a Mexican population with and without current symptoms of anxiety and possible factors driving individuals to overestimate their abilities on the CNT. We predicted the abnormal symptoms of anxiety (ASA) group would report better CNT performance, report higher perceived workloads on the CNT, and underperform on the CNT compared to the normal symptoms of anxiety (NSA) group. We also predicted the low-performance group would report better CNT performance, report higher perceived workloads on the CNT, and underperform on the CNT compared to the high-performance group.
Participants and Methods:The sample consisted of 192 Mexican participants with NSA (79 low-performance & 113 high-performance) and 74 Mexican participants with ASA (44 low-performance & 30 high-performance). Participants completed the CNT, NASA-TLX, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) in Spanish. The NASA-TLX was used to evaluate perceived workloads after the completion of the CNT. Meanwhile, the HADS was used to create our anxiety groups. Finally, CNT raw scores were converted into T-scores, which then were averaged to create the following two groups: low-performance (CNT T-Score <50) and high-performance (CNT T-Score 50+). A series of 2x2 ANCOVAs, controlling for gender were used to evaluate CNT performance and perceived workloads.
Results:We found a significant interaction where the low-performance ASA and the high-performance NSA groups demonstrated better CNT performance and reported higher perceived workloads (i.e., performance, temporal demand) on the CNT compared to their respective counterparts (i.e., low-performance NSA & high-performance ASA groups), p's<.05, ηp's2=.02. We found a main effect where the high-performance group outperformed the low-performance group on the CNT and reported lower perceived workloads on the CNT, p's<.05, ηp's2 =.04-.46.
Conclusions:The Dunning-Krueger effect did not occur in our sample. Participants that demonstrated better CNT performance also reported higher perceived workloads regardless of their current symptoms of anxiety. A possible explanation can be our sample's cultural norms of what would be considered as abnormal symptoms of anxiety, is a normal part of life, decreasing the possibilities to experience self-efficacy distoritions. Future studies should investigate whether the Dunning-Kruger effect may be influencing other aspects of cognitive functioning subjectively in Mexicans residing in Mexico and the United States with and without current symptoms of anxiety.
27 Aging Affects Cordoba Naming Test Performance
- Jasman Sidhu, Krithika Sivaramakrishnan, Raymundo Cervantes, Sarah Saravia, Luz Estrada, Dulce Garcia, Alexia Barrio, Isabel D. Munoz, Enrique Lopez, Tara L. Victor, Alberto L. Fernandez, Daniel W. Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal:
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 339-340
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Objective:
The Cordoba Naming Test (CNT) is a 30-item confrontation naming test developed in Argentina. A common confrontation naming task used in the United States is the Boston Naming Test (BNT). Research shows that age affects BNT performance in the 60-item long form. In fact, studies show that scores on confrontation naming tasks increase in childhood and continue to improve until approximately 40 years of age. However, after this period, scores start to subsequently decline, and especially so after 70 years of age. On the other hand, some studies have reported that older adults maintain high BNT performance despite advancing age. To our knowledge, no study has investigated the aging effects of the CNT across various age groups. We expected CNT scores to increase significantly from young adulthood to mid-adulthood and then significantly decline with advancing age.
Participants and Methods:The present study sample consisted of 272 neurologically and psychologically healthy participants with a mean age of 27.06 (SD = 12.21) with 14.29 years of education completed (SD = 2.46). Participants were divided into six different age groups: 18-19-year-old group, 20-29-year-old group, 30-39-year-old group, 40-49-year-old group, 50-59-year-old group, and 60-69-year-old group. All participants consented to voluntary participation and completed the CNT and a comprehensive background questionnaire in English. The CNT consisted of 30 black and white line drawings, ranging from easy to hard difficulty. An ANCOVA, controlling for gender, was used to evaluate CNT performance between the six age groups. We used a threshold of p < .05 for statistical significance.
Results:Results revealed significant group differences between the six age groups on the CNT, p = .000, ηp2 = .14. A post-hoc test revealed that the 30-39-year-old group outperformed the 18-19-year-old, 20-29-yearold, and 60-69-year-old groups on the CNT. Finally, the 40-49-year-old group outperformed the 18-19-year-old and 60-69-year-old groups on the CNT.
Conclusions:As we predicted, participants demonstrated steady improvement in the CNT until the age of 40. However, we found that until the age of 60, CNT performance started to decline significantly. Our data suggests that CNT performance declines significantly at the age of 60 compared to previous research using the BNT. Research shows other demographic variables (e.g., gender, linguistic factors) influence BNT performance. Future investigations on the CNT using a healthy sample should use a multivariate statistical analysis method to help explain influencing factors across aging. This research can have the potential to improve public health to better support and understand individuals from diverse backgrounds.
35 Bilingualism and Time Perspective in Hispanic-Americans Speed Attention
- Daniel W. Lopez-Hernandez, Krissy E. Smith, Isabel D. C. Munoz, Tara L. Victor
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- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 447-448
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Objective:
Differences between monolinguals and bilinguals have been documented in neuropsychological test performance. Various explanations have been provided to explain why differences exist among these language groups. Hispanic-Americans are individuals born and reside in the United States and have a family background extending to one of the Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America or Spain. Furthermore, Hispanic-American children from Hispanic homes where Spanish is their first language find themselves academically at a disadvantage because their English vocabulary may be lower than English monolinguals. Time perspective (TP) refers to an individual’s orientation towards the past, present, or future. One’s ability to change their TP in order to adapt to changes in cultural context can result in optimal psychological well-being. In one study, researchers reported no relationship existed between ethnicity and TP on cognition. To our knowledge, no study has examined the relationship between language and TP in Hispanic-Americans’ speed attention performance. Therefore, it was predicted that monolinguals would outperform bilinguals on speed attention tasks. Next, it was predicted that monolinguals would report higher scores on future time orientation compared to bilinguals, and bilinguals would report higher scores on past and present time orientation compared to monolinguals. Finally, differences in TP would correlate with speed attention tasks between language groups.
Participants and Methods:The sample consisted of 119 Hispanic-Americans with a mean age of 19.45 (SD = 1.43). Participants were broken into three groups: English first language monolingual (EFLM), English first language bilingual (EFLB), and English second language bilingual (ESLB). The Comalli Stroop part A and B, Trail Making Test part A, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test written and oral parts were used to evaluate speed attention and the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory was used to evaluate time orientation in our sample.
Results:ANOVAs revealed the EFLM group outperformed the ESLB group on the Comalli Stroop part B, p = .020, np2 = .07. Next, we also found on the Symbol Digit Modalities Test written part the EFLB group outperformed both bilingual groups, p = .025, np2 = .06. Regarding TP, the EFLB group reported higher past negative orientation compared to the EFLM group, p = .033, np2 = .06. Additionally, we found the bilingual groups reported higher present-fatalistic compared to the EFLM group, p = .023, np2 = .06. Pearson’s correlation revealed no significant correlations between TP and speed attention tasks on any of our language groups.
Conclusions:As expected, the EFLM group outperformed the ESLB group on several speed attention tasks, but the EFLM group only outperformed the EFLB group on the Symbol Digit Modalities Test written part. Additionally, we found that our EFLB sample reported higher orientation of the past and present compared to monolinguals. Our sample level of acculturation could have been a factor influencing the relationship between TP and speed attention. Future studies using larger representative samples should include measures of acculturation and examine if TP influences other cognitive domains (e.g., executive function) in Hispanic-American monolingual and bilingual speakers.
89 Depression and Executive Function in a Mexican Population
- Natalia Lozano Acosta, Yvette De Jesus, Krissy E Smith, Isabel D.C. Munoz, Adriana Cuello Cancino, Mariam Gomez, Raymundo Cervantes, Daniel W Lopez Hernandez
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- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 289-290
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Objective:
Depression is a mood or emotional state that is characterized by feelings of sadness (i.e., a loss of interest in activities, low self-worth) for a minimum of two weeks. Executive function is a set of mental processes that are necessary for cognitive control of behavior to achieve and successfully execute a specific goal (e.g., inhibition). Researchers have reported that people with abnormal symptoms of depression (ASD) demonstrate worse executive functioning abilities (e.g., planning) compared to persons with normal symptoms of depression (NSD). Currently, there is a lack of research studies examining how depressive symptoms influence executive functioning in people that identify as Mexican. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the influence of depression on executive functioning in a healthy Mexican Spanish speaking population. We hypothesized that participants with NSD would demonstrate better executive functioning abilities compared to participants with ASD.
Participants and Methods:The sample in the present study consisted of 87 neurologically and psychologically healthy Mexican participants all residing in Mexico. Mean age was 24.71 (SD = 9.66) and 14.78 (SD = 4.50) years of education completed. Participants completed a neuropsychological battery in Spanish and were divided into two groups: NSD (n = 61) and ASD (n = 26). The Stroop Color Word Test - Color-Word (SCWT-CW) task, phonemic verbal fluency task consisting of three trials, and semantic verbal fluency task consisting of one trial were used to evaluate executive functioning. In addition, participants completed the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale in Spanish to report the current level of depression. ANCOVAS, controlling for age were used to examine executive functioning performance. We used a threshold of p < .05 for statistical significance.
Results:ANCOVAS revealed the NSD group outperformed the ASD group on the SCWT-CW task, p = .004, np2 = .10. We also found the NSD group outperformed the ASD group on the phonemic verbal fluency task, p = .045, np2 = .05. Finally, no significant differences were found between depression groups on the semantic verbal fluency task.
Conclusions:As we predicted, the NSD group demonstrated better executive functioning abilities compared to the ASD group, except on the semantic verbal fluency task. Our data suggests that the current level of depression have a significant influence on verbal executive functioning abilities in a Spanish speaking population. Future studies with larger sample size should evaluate if current symptoms of depression influence non-verbal executive functioning abilities in a Spanish speaking Mexican population.
8 The Dunning-Kruger Effect on a Latinx Population
- Carolina Garza Castaneda, Matthew J. Wright, Raymundo Cervantes, Tara L. Victor, Krissy E. Smith, Chelsea McElwee, Adriana Cuello, Alberto L. Fernandez, Isabel D. C. Munoz, David J. Hardy, Daniel W. Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal:
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 423-424
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Objective:
Individuals tend to overestimate their abilities in areas where they are less competent. This cognitive bias is known as the Dunning-Krueger effect. Research shows that Dunning-Krueger effect occurs in persons with traumatic brain injury and healthy comparison participants. It was suggested by Walker and colleagues (2017) that the deficits in cognitive awareness may be due to brain injury. Confrontational naming tasks (e.g., Boston Naming Test) are used to evaluate language abilities. The Cordoba Naming Test (CNT) is a 30-item confrontational naming task developed to be administered in multiple languages. Hardy and Wright (2018) conditionally validated a measure of perceived mental workload called the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). They found that workload ratings on the NASA-TLX increased with increased task demands on a cognitive task. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether the Dunning-Kruger effect occurs in a Latinx population and possible factors driving individuals to overestimate their abilities on the CNT. We predicted the low-performance group would report better CNT performance, but underperform on the CNT compared to the high-performance group.
Participants and Methods:The sample consisted of 129 Latinx participants with a mean age of 21.07 (SD = 4.57). Participants were neurologically and psychologically healthy. Our sample was divided into two groups: the low-performance group and the high-performance group. Participants completed the CNT and the NASA-TLX in English. The NASA-TLX examines perceived workload (e.g., performance) and it was used in the present study to evaluate possible factors driving individuals to overestimate their abilities on the CNT. Participants completed the NASA-TLX after completing the CNT. Moreover, the CNT raw scores were averaged to create the following two groups: low-performance (CNT raw score <17) and high-performance (CNT raw score 18+). A series of ANCOVA's, controlling for gender and years of education completed were used to evaluate CNT performance and CNT perceived workloads.
Results:We found the low-performance group reported better performance on the CNT compared to the high-performance, p = .021, np2 = .04. However, the high-performance group outperformed the low-performance group on the CNT, p = .000, np2 = .53. Additionally, results revealed the low-performance group reported higher temporal demand and effort levels on the CNT compared to the high-performance group, p's < .05, nps2 = .05.
Conclusions:As we predicted, the low-performance group overestimated their CNT performance compared to the high-performance group. The current data suggest that the Dunning-Kruger effect occurs in healthy Latinx participants. We also found that temporal demand and effort may be influencing awareness in the low-performance group CNT performance compared to the high-performance group. The present study suggests subjective features on what may be influencing confrontational naming task performance in low-performance individuals more than highperformance individuals on the CNT. Current literature shows that bilingual speakers underperformed on confrontational naming tasks compared to monolingual speakers. Future studies should investigate if the Dunning-Kruger effects Latinx English monolingual speakers compared to Spanish-English bilingual speakers on the CNT.
25 Exploring Phonemic and Semantic Fluency Ability Across Multiple Generations
- Krithika Sivaramakrishnan, Dorthy Schmidt, Krissy E Smith, Brittany Heuchert, Adriana C Cuello, Natalia L Acosta, Miriam Gomez, Isabel D Munoz, Yvette D Jesus, Daniel W Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal:
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 438-439
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Objective:
Verbal fluency tasks evaluate executive functioning by requiring a person to provide words within a certain time period that start with a certain letter (phonemic fluency) or category (semantic fluency). Research shows that age impacts test takers’ phonemic and semantic verbal fluency performance. In fact, it has been suggested that phonemic verbal fluency peaks around age 30 to 39 and begins to decline at older ages. In contrast to phonemic fluency, research suggests that semantic fluency increases steadily between test takers until age 12 and begins declining around age 20. A generation is a cohort of people born within a certain period who share age and experiences. Studies show that Generation X individuals (persons born between 1965-1980) outperform Generation Y (persons born between 19811995) and Generation Z individuals (persons born between 1965-1980) on the Cordoba Naming Test. To our knowledge, no study has investigated verbal fluency performance across generational groups. We predicted that Generation X individuals would outperform individuals from Generation Y and Z on both verbal fluency measures.
Participants and Methods:The sample of the present study consisted of 107 participants with a mean age of 27.39 (SD = 9.16). Participants were divided into three groups: Generation X (n = 19), Generation Y (n = 52), and Generation Z (n = 36). The phonemic verbal fluency task consisted of three trials and the semantic verbal fluency task consisted of one trial, one minute each. A series of ANCOVAs with Bonferroni post-hoc tests were used to evaluate verbal fluency performance between generational groups. All participants passed performance validity testing.
Results:We found significant differences between our generational groups on both verbal fluency tasks. Post-hoc tests revealed that the Generation Y group outperformed both Generation X and Z groups on both verbal fluency tasks, p’s <.05, np2 =.11 -.16. No significant differences were found on either verbal fluency task between the Generation X and Z groups.
Conclusions:Contrary to our hypothesis, Generation Y individuals possessed better phonemic and semantic fluency than both Generation X and Z individuals. Meanwhile, Generation X individuals did not significantly differ on any of the verbal fluency tasks compared to Generation Z individuals. Speaking multiple languages has been shown to impact verbal fluency performance. In our sample, the Generation X and Z groups consisted primarily of bilingual speakers compared to the Generation Y group. Examining generational differences is essential to understand the unique characteristics and impact of the times in which various individuals have grown up. Future research, for instance, should evaluate the influence of bilingualism across generational groups on verbal fluency performance.
22 Cordoba Naming Test Performance and Acculturation in a Geriatric Population
- Isabel C.D. Muñoz, Krissy E. Smith, Santiago I. Espinoza, Diana M. R. Maqueda, Adriana C. Cuello, Ana Paula Pena, Carolina Garza, Raymundo Cervantes, Jill Razani, Tara L. Victor, David J. Hardy, Alberto L. Fernandez, Natalia Lozano Acosta, Daniel W. Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal:
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 335-336
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Objective:
A commonly used confrontation naming task used in the United States is The Boston Naming Test (BNT). Performance differences has been found in Caucasian and ethnic minorities on the BNT. The Cordoba Naming Test (CNT) is a 30-item confrontation naming task developed in Argentina. Past research has shown acculturation levels can influence cognitive performance. Furthermore, one study evaluated geriatric gender differences on CNT performance in Spanish. Researchers reported that older male participants outperformed female participants on the CNT. To our knowledge, researchers have not evaluated ethnic differences on the CNT using a geriatric sample. The purpose of the present study was to examined CNT performance and acculturation in a Latinx and Caucasian geriatric sample. It was predicted the Caucasian group would outperform the Latinx group on the CNT. Moreover, the Caucasian group would report higher acculturation levels on the Abbreviated Multidimensional Acculturation Scale (AMAS) compared to the Latinx group.
Participants and Methods:The sample consisted of 9 Latinx and 11 Caucasian participants with a mean age of 66.80 (SD =6.10), with an average of 14.30 (SD = 2.00) years of education. All participants were neurologically and psychologically healthy and completed the CNT and the AMAS in English. Acculturation was measured via the AMAS English subscales (i.e., English Language, United States. Identity, United States, Competency). A series of ANCOVAs, controlling for years of education completed and gender, was used to evaluate CNT performance and acculturation.
Results:The ethnic groups were not well demographically matched (i.e., years of education and gender).We found that the Caucasian group outperformed the Latinx group on CNT performance p = .012, ηp 2 = .34. Furthermore, the Caucasian group reported higher acculturation levels (i.e., English Language, United States, Identity, United States, Competency) compared to the Latinx group p’s < .05, ηps2 = .42-.64.
Conclusions:To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate CNT performance between ethnic groups with a geriatric sample. As expected the Caucasian group outperformed the Latinx group on the CNT. Also, as expected the Caucasian group reported higher English acculturation levels compared to the Latinx group. Our findings are consistent with past studies showing ethnic differences on confrontational naming performance (i.e., The Boston Naming Test), favoring Caucasians. A possible explanation for group differences could have been linguistic factors (e.g., speaking multiple languages) in our Latinx group. Therefore, since our Latinx group reported lower levels of English Language, United States identity, and United States competency the Latinx group assimilation towards United States culture might of influence their CNT performance. Future studies with different ethnic groups (e.g., African-Americans) and a larger sample size should examine if ethnic differences continue to cross-validate in a geriatric sample.
30 Analyzing Spanish Speakers Cordoba Naming Test Performance
- Raymundo Cervantes, Isabel D.C. Munoz, Estefania J. Aguirre, Natalia Lozano Acosta, Mariam Gomez, Adriana C. Cuello, Krissy E. Smith, Diana I. Palacios Mata, Krithika Sivaramakrishnan, Yvette De Jesus, Santiago I. Espinoza, Diana M. R. Maqueda, David J. Hardy, Tara L. Victor, Alberto L. Fernandez, Daniel W. Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal:
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 443-444
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Objective:
A 30-item confrontation naming test was developed in Argentina for Spanish speakers, The Cordoba Naming Test (CNT). The Boston Naming Test is an established confrontation naming task in the United States. Researchers have used the Boston Naming Test to identify individuals with different clinical pathologies (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease). The current literature on how Spanish speakers across various countries perform on confrontational naming tasks is limited. To our knowledge, one study investigated CNT performance across three Spanish-speaking countries (i.e., Argentina, Mexico, and Guatemala). Investigators found that the Guatemalan group underperformed on the CNT compared to the Argentine and Mexican groups. The purpose of this study was to extend the current literature and investigate CNT performance across five Spanish-speaking countries (i.e., Argentina, Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, United States). We predicted that the Argentine group would outperform the other Spanish-speaking countries.
Participants and Methods:The present study sample consisted of 502 neurologically and psychologically healthy participants with a mean age of 29.06 (SD = 13.41) with 14.75 years of education completed (SD = 3.01). Participants were divided into five different groups based on their country of birth and current country residency (i.e., United States, Mexico, Guatemala, Argentina, & Colombia). All participants consented to voluntary participation and completed the CNT and a comprehensive background questionnaire in Spanish. The CNT consisted of 30 black and white line drawings, ranging from easy to hard in difficulty. An ANCOVA, controlling for gender, education, and age, was used to evaluate CNT performance between the five Spanish-speaking country groups. Meanwhile, a Bonferroni post-hoc test was utilized to evaluate the significant differences between Spanish-speaking groups. We used a threshold of p < .05 for statistical significance.
Results:Results revealed significant group differences between the five Spanish speaking groups on the CNT, p = .000, np2 = .48. Bonferroni post-hoc test revealed that the United States group significantly underperformed on the CNT compared to all the Spanish-speaking groups. Next, we found the Guatemalan group underperformed on the CNT compared to the Argentinian, Mexican, and Colombian groups. Additionally, we found the Argentinian group outperformed the Mexican, Guatemalan, and United States groups on the CNT. No significant differences were found between the Argentinian group and Colombian group or the Mexican group and Colombian group on the CNT.
Conclusions:As predicted, the Argentinian group outperformed all the Spanish-speaking groups on the CNT except the Colombian group. Additionally, we found that the United States group underperformed on the CNT compared to all the Spanish-speaking groups. A possible explanation is that Spanish is not the official language in the United States compared to the rest of the Spanish-speaking groups. Meanwhile, a possible reason why the Argentinian and Colombian groups demonstrated better CNT performances might have been that it was less culturally sensitive than the United States, Mexican, and Guatemalan groups. Further analysis is needed with bigger sample sizes across other Spanish-speaking countries (e.g., Costa Rica, Chile) to evaluate what variables, if any, are influencing CNT performance.
68 Bilinguals' Perceived Workloads on The Boston Naming Test
- Krithika Sivaramakrishnan, Yvette D Jesus, Dorthy Schmidt, Brittany Heuchert, Krissy E Smith, Adriana C Cancino, Natalia Lozano, Miriam Gomez, Isabel D Munoz, Daniel W Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal:
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 272-273
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Objective:
The Boston Naming Test (BNT) is a 60-item confrontation naming task requiring participants to name a series of pictures. Prior research has shown that bilingual children have smaller vocabularies than monolinguals and that this effect continues into adulthood. Numerous studies have confirmed that bilingual adults name fewer pictures correctly than monolinguals on the BNT. Research also shows that self-reported workload correlates with neuropsychological test performance and that estimates of workload provide additional information regarding cognitive outcomes. Hardy and Wright (2018) conditionally validated a measure of perceived mental workload called the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX; Hart & Staveland 1988) with healthy adults on a neuropsychological test (i.e., the Tower of Hanoi). Research also shows that bilinguals report higher perceived workloads on cognitive tasks compared to monolinguals. Although this work has recently extended to other tests, to our knowledge, the workload profile of the BNT remains relatively unexplored. We evaluated BNT performance and perceived workload via the NASA-TLX in monolinguals and bilinguals. We predicted that monolinguals would outperform bilinguals on the BNT, but that bilinguals would report higher workloads.
Participants and Methods:The study sample consisted of 84 healthy participants (36 monolinguals, 48 bilinguals) with a mean age of 28.94 (SD = 10.76). Participants completed the standard 60-item BNT in English. The NASA-TLX scale was utilized to evaluate perceived workload across six subscales. The NASA-TLX was also completed in English after the completion of the BNT. ANOVAs were used to test BNT performance and perceived workload ratings between our language groups.
Results:We found that monolinguals performed better on the BNT compared to bilinguals, p =.001, np2 = 24. However, bilinguals reported exerting more effort when completing the BNT compared to monolinguals, p =.002, np2 = .11. Additionally. bilinguals also experienced more frustration when completing the BNT compared to monolinguals, p =.034, np2 = .05.
Conclusions:As expected, results revealed that monolinguals outperformed bilingual participants on the BNT. However, bilinguals exerted more effort on the BNT and reported the BNT to be more frustrating. A possible reason for bilinguals underperforming and reporting higher perceived workloads on the BNT may be because correct responses were only accepted in English. This may have caused bilingual speakers to exert increased effort to complete the task in a non-native language. In turn, this increased effort likely increased cognitive load and led to higher frustration levels. Further research is needed to confirm our findings and support the idea that bilingualism leads to perceiving greater effort and frustration, and to determine whether there are subgroup differences in BNT performances among bilingual individuals (e.g., English learned as a first language compared to English learned as a second language).
41 Analyzing Perceived Workloads in Bilinguals and Monolinguals’ Digit Span Performance
- Yvette De Jesus, Krithika Sivaramakrishnan, Adriana Cuello Cancino, Mariam Gomez Curiel, Natalia Lozano Acosta, Isabel D.C. Munoz, Krissy E. Smith, Daniel W. Lopez Hernandez
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- Journal:
- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, p. 452
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Objective:
A common neuropsychological task used is the Digit Span, known as a test of attention and working memory. The Digit Span Forward (DS-F) task evaluates attention; meanwhile, the Digit Span Backward (DS-B) and Sequencing (DS-S) evaluate working memory. Research shows that persons that speak multiple languages demonstrate better attention and working memory abilities compared to monolingual speakers. The NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX) was conditionally validated by Hardy and Wright (2018) to measure perceived mental workload. Research also shows that bilinguals report higher perceived workloads on cognitive tasks compared to monolinguals. With that said, it was hypothesized that bilinguals would demonstrate better performances on Digit Span tasks compared to monolinguals. Additionally, it was hypothesized that bilinguals would report higher perceived workloads on all digit span tasks compared to monolinguals.
Participants and Methods:The sample consisted of 29 psychologically and neurologically healthy participants with a mean age of 29.66 (SD = 7.14). Participants were divided into two groups: English monolingual speakers (n = 10) and English and other language bilingual speakers (n = 19).
Participants completed all the subtests of the Digit Span (i.e., DS-F, DS-B, DS-S) in English. The NASA-TLX was used to measured DS-F, DS-B, and DS-S perceived workloads. The NASA-TLX was completed after each Digit Span subtest in English. We used ANOVAs to evaluate DS-F, DS-B, and DS-S performance and their perceived workload between our language groups.
Results:We found no significant differences between language groups on the DS-F. However, the bilingual group reported the DS-F to be more temporally demanding and frustrating compared to the monolingual group, p’s < .05, nps2 =.14-.15. Next, we found that the monolingual group outperformed the bilingual group on the DS-B task, p = .027, np2 = .17. On the other hand, the bilingual group reported the DS-B task to be more temporally demanding and frustrating compared to the monolingual group, p’s < .05, nps2=.18-.20. Finally, on the DS-S task the monolingual group outperformed the bilingual group, p = .043, np2 = .14. Meanwhile, the bilingual group reported the DS-S task to be more mentally and temporally demanding compared to the monolingual group, p’s < .05, nps2=.18-.34.
Conclusions:Contrary to our hypothesis, results show that monolinguals outperformed bilinguals on DS-B and DS-S, but not DS-F. However, as expected, bilinguals did report higher perceived workloads (e.g., frustration) on Digit Span tasks compared to monolinguals. A possible explanation could be that bilinguals’ efforts to remember the numbers were more taxing compared to monolinguals’ because they had to inhibit from verbally responding in their other language. Rushing bilinguals to provide responses, ultimately developing higher perceived workloads on Digit Span tasks. Future work should investigate if time perspective may be influencing bilingual speakers Digit Span performances and perceived workloads.
39 Perceived Workload and Language Order Effects on the Cordoba Naming Test in Spanish-English Bilinguals
- Krissy E. Smith, Isabel D. C. Munoz, Raymundo Cervantes, Andrea R. Preciado, Tara L. Victor, Natalia Garcia, Paula V. Bracho, Enrique Lopez, Alberto L. Fernandez, Yvette De Jesus, Daniel W. Lopez-Hernandez
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- Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society / Volume 29 / Issue s1 / November 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 21 December 2023, pp. 451-452
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Objective:
The Cordoba Naming Test (CNT) is a 30-item confrontation naming task. The administration of the CNT can be administered in multiple languages. Hardy and Wright (2018) conditionally validated a measure of perceived mental workload called the National Aeronautic Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX). They found that workload ratings on the NASA-TLX increased with increased demands on a cognitive task. Researchers found interactions in a study examining language proficiency and language (i.e., in which the test was administered) on several tasks of the Golden Stroop Test. Their results revealed that unbalanced bilinguals’ best-spoken language showed significantly better results compared to balanced bilinguals’ where language use did not matter. To our knowledge, no study has examined the order effects of Spanish-English bilingual speakers’ CNT performance and perceived workloads when completed in Spanish first compared to English second and vice-versa. We predicted that persons that completed the CNT in English first would demonstrate better performances and report lower perceived workloads on the CNT compared to completing the CNT in Spanish second. In addition, we predicted that persons that completed the CNT in Spanish first would demonstrate worse performance and higher perceived workloads on the CNT compared to completing the CNT in English second.
Participants and Methods:The sample consisted of 62 Spanish-English healthy and neurologically bilingual speakers with a mean age of 19.94 (SD= 3.36). Thirty-seven participants completed the CNT in English first and then in Spanish (English-to-Spanish) and 25 participants completed the CNT in Spanish first and then in English (Spanish-to-English). The NASA-TLX was used to evaluate CNT perceived workloads. All the participants completed the NASA-TLX in English and Spanish after completing the CNT in the language given, respectfully. A series of paired-samples T-Tests were completed to evaluate groups CNT performance and perceived workload.
Results:We found that the English-to-Spanish group performed better on the CNT in English first than completing it in Spanish second, p = .000. We also found that the English-to-Spanish group reported better performance and less mentally demanding on the CNT when it was completed in English first compared to completing it in Spanish second, p’s < .05. Regarding the Spanish-to-English group, we found participants performed worse when they completed the CNT in Spanish first compared to completing the CNT in English second, p = .000. Finally, the Spanish-to-English group reported worse performance completing the CNT in Spanish first, more temporal demanding, and more frustrating compared to completing the CNT in English second, p’s < .05.
Conclusions:As expected, when participants completed the CNT in English, regardless of the order, they performed better and reported lower perceived workloads compared to completing the CNT in Spanish. Our data suggests that language order effect influenced participants CNT performance possibly due to not knowing specific items in Spanish compared to in English. Future studies using larger sample sizes should evaluate language order effects on the CNT in Spanish-English balanced bilingual speakers compared to unbalanced bilingual speakers.
THE LIFTING PROBLEM FOR UNIVERSAL QUADRATIC FORMS OVER SIMPLEST CUBIC FIELDS
- Part of
- DANIEL GIL-MUÑOZ, MAGDALÉNA TINKOVÁ
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- Bulletin of the Australian Mathematical Society , First View
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- 06 October 2023, pp. 1-13
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The lifting problem for universal quadratic forms over a totally real number field K consists of determining the existence or otherwise of a quadratic form with integer coefficients (or $\mathbb {Z}$-form) that is universal over K. We prove the nonexistence of universal $\mathbb {Z}$-forms over simplest cubic fields for which the integer parameter is big enough. The monogenic case is already known. We prove the nonexistence in the nonmonogenic case by using the existence of a totally positive nonunit algebraic integer in K with minimal (codifferent) trace equal to one.
Capítulo 3º - Ronda
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- Book:
- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- Boydell & Brewer
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- 11 January 2024
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- 30 May 2023, pp 56-59
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Summary
Del otro lado el pensamiento vago Mira el pendiente y levantado risco
Lo que sujeta amenazando a estrago
Y allí vino a plantar donde un Lantisco
Con gran dificultad se sustentara
Guindos y endrinos el sagaz morisco.
Rimas de Espinel, al doctor Luis de Castilla.Razón será, mientras duermen los viajantes, que yo entretenga a mis lectores un rato sobre el estado de Ronda en los tiempos en que pasaban los sucesos que refiriendo voy.
Vencido el orgullo de los godos en las letales orillas del Guadalete, cual mortífera mole que encierra en sus flancos el rayo asolador, lanzáronse por el Andalucía las hordas musulmanas; si no curaron en un principio de conquistar a Ronda, destrozados los cristianos de nuevo en Jaén, Córdoba y Sevilla, abiertas las puertas de las otras ciudades y castillos a los vencedores, pronto ondeó la media luna en sus encumbradas almenas; esparciéronse los árabes por toda la serranía, y hallaron en ella sitios inaccesibles para fundar pueblos y tierras vírgenes que cultivar; los romanos y godos habían desdeñado esta comarca, mas viose a los pocos años de la dominación agarena descollar ya entre tajados riscos, ya entre espesos matorrales los pueblos de Montejaque, Benaoján, Benaocaz, Pujerra, Júzcar, Faraján y otros muchos; también edificaron sobre antiguas ruinas, como Ubrique sobre Ocusitano, y Benajú sobre Sepona;3 brindábales a ello el despejado cielo, la abundancia de exquisitas y limpias aguas y la variedad de frutos; veíase, en efecto, alzar entre espesos breñales la palmera africana su majestuosa frente al lado de la encina del norte.
Pasados algunos años, la suavidad del clima y la feracidad de las tierras contribuyeron sobremanera a amansar y civilizar los duros corazones de los hijos del profeta; no eran ya aquellos alarbes homicidas de feroz mirada, de modales groseros, empuñando siempre la espantosa gumía para asesinar aun a las mujeres y niños; mientras unos, montados en briosos corceles, ya caracoleaban por el llano de Ronda ejercitándose en militares ejercicios, o ya al sonido de los añafiles y atabales volaban a las lides a defender su nueva y naciente patria; otros, pacíficos cultivadores, convertían los áridos páramos en deliciosos jardines, y en fructíferos huertos;
39 - La prisión inquisitorial
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- Boydell & Brewer
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- 11 January 2024
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- 30 May 2023, pp 254-260
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Summary
Algunos parientes de los presos e condenados reclamaron diciendo que
aquella inquisición y execución era rigorosa, allende de lo que debía ser e
que en la manera que se tenía de facer los procesos, y en la exención de las
sentencias, los ministros y exentores mostraban tener odio a aquellas gentes.
Crónica de los Reyes Católicos, por Hernando del Pulgar, parte 2ª, cap. 77.Hacía muy pocas horas que sabía el ferí el imprudente y mal motivado alzamiento de Istán, y entreteníanse en hablar del asunto con Mahamud, cuando llegó Pablo y le entregó una carta que decía así:
Abenamet; la persona a que salvasteis la vida en la Sierra de los Alfaques, y el honor en la ermita de Benameda, quiere hablaros al instante; buscadla en la casa de Abul-Hacem; por el Tajo… Cae una ventana baja…
—¡La casa de Abul-Hacem! ¿Allí hay un convento? —exclamó el ferí— ¡Ya! Ya caigo en el misterio; volaremos a verla. Mira —prosiguió, llamando al criado—, vuelve a la señora que te dio esta carta, y dile que esta misma noche serán exactamente obedecidos sus mandatos.
Bien comido, quitado el disfraz, y andando tanto como una mala nueva, llegó Pablo en pocas horas a Ronda, y dejó a su ama satisfecha del buen éxito de su encargo; detrás de él salieron el ferí y Mahamud, y dejando que oscureciera para acercarse a la ciudad sin peligro se escondieron en una viña de Sijuela, donde vivía un morisco amigo suyo.
—¿Por qué —dijo Mahamud— nos paramos en este sitio? Ya habrá corrido como fuego la noticia de Istán, saldrán de Ronda los cristianos a perseguir a los fugitivos, y plegue a Alá no nos encuentren; si así sucediese con nuestra muerte se acababa para siempre la esperanza de libertad que cual sagrado depósito se conserva en nuestros corazones.
—Dices bien, sin nosotros, que somos los primeros que nos lanzaremos a la lid, ¿qué harían nuestros infelices compatricios?
—¿Pues entonces por qué nos detenemos aquí, expuestos a perecer sin gloria?
—Este es un secreto, Mahamud, que por ahora me conviene no revelarte.
26 - La conjuración
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- Boydell & Brewer
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- 11 January 2024
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- 30 May 2023, pp 178-183
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Summary
Volved las armas y ánimo furioso
A los pechos de aquellos que os han puesto
En dura sujeción, con afrentoso
Partido, a todo el mundo manifiesto;
Lanzad de vos el yugo vergonzoso
Mostrad vuestro valor y fuerza en esto.
Araucana, canto 2.El rigor con que los ganadores de Ronda trataban a los moros de los lugares hizo que muchos de ellos, en vez de vivir en los pueblos, lo hicieran en las asperezas de Sierra Bermeja, sobre todo en la parte comprendida entre Jubrique, Genalguacil y Casares por un lado, y el mar mediterráneo por otro; allí, ora cultivando pequeños trozos de tierra de labor, ora manteniéndose de silvestres frutas, ora robando y molestando a los cristianos, sufrían todos los horrores de la persecución y de la miseria, su compañera inseparable; desnudos, hambrientos y extenuados, robaban algunas veces en torno de sus antiguos hogares, y veían en sus primitivas casas dormir tranquilos en mullidos lechos a sus despiadados vencedores, mientras ellos reclinaban la cabeza sobre toscas piedras envueltos en sus alquiceles, y sin tener a oraciones más techo para cubrirse que la celeste bóveda, tachonada de doradas estrellas; en ninguna parte había más de estos infelices que en los ásperos vericuetos de las sierras de Genalguacil y Casares, donde descollaba entre tajados riscos la torre de Gebalhamar junto a un pedregoso llano; desde muy de mañana entablaron en ella tristes y sentidos coloquios el mismo día de la cita el alfaquí Almanzor y Mahomud, moro principal de Estepona, que refugiado en aquel fuerte vivía con su familia.
—Almanzor —dijo Mahomud—, hace muchos días que no hace el sol tan plácido para mí como hoy; siento en verdad la funesta desgracia que ha sucedido a tu pueblo, pero veo en ella un poderoso motivo de esperanza, rotas ya las vallas del agradecimiento, el ilustre caudillo de Benastepar no debe nada a sus contrarios y podrá, acompañando altivo su potente cimitarra, sacarnos de la letargosa esclavitud en que yacemos sumergidos.
—Mucho temo, Mahomud —replicó el alfaquí— que tus presentimientos salgan vanos; el viento mortífero del desierto ha soplado sobre nosotros, y ha extinguido el vigor de nuestros valientes adalides.
—No, aún queda sangre mora en nuestros pechos, aún corremos briosos a las armas al punto que la señal se dé de la pelea; ¿veis mis canas?
28 - El desafío y la traición
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- Book:
- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- Boydell & Brewer
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- 11 January 2024
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- 30 May 2023, pp 190-195
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Summary
Entonces en su caballo pasó el agua y fuese endereçando sus armas contra
don Florestán, el cual que lo vio así venir y que el agua passara hirió el
caballo de las espuelas, y fue para él…
Amadís de Gaula, lib. 3º, cap. 37.Ya había corrido el sol más de la mitad de su carrera, cuando al pie de la fuente del Aljarife veíase sentado al triste Abenamet; su criado Tarfe espiaba con cuidado el camino de la ciudad, temiendo alguna sorpresa, mientras él, apoyado el brazo derecho contra el muslo, miraba lánguidamente correr las límpidas aguas.
—Señor —le dijo Tarfe, alzando un poco la voz—, si quisieras tomar algún alimento…
—Nada necesito —le respondió su señor.
Sobrecogiose un poco el fiel doméstico, notando tan desusada aspereza, mas a poco se alentó de nuevo, y descolgando una talega que traía encima de su caballo, fue extendiendo inmediatamente sus provisiones sobre el menudo y fresco césped, sin duda para llamar la atención de su amo, y diciendo para sí, con voz que podía muy bien ser oída:
—Lástima es que mi señor no pruebe, aunque fuera siquiera una migaja de este sabroso almorí que parece se ha condimentado para el mismo emperador de Marruecos; pues no que este asado de cabrito… Por Alá que el aire se ha atafagado con el delicioso olor que despide… ¡Ya! Y estas rojizas manzanas, y estos delicados priscos conservados por mí con tanto esmero… ¡Friolera…! Más blanco es el pan que la nieve; ¡cuánto hubiera dado por encontrarlo así nuestro bendito profeta, aunque hubiera sido duro, cuando, perseguido por los habitantes de Medina, tuvo que atravesar los inmensos arenales de la Arabia y comer solo langostas secas…! Pues bien… Mejor… Nadie me acompaña, y yo voy a meter mano… ¡Santísimo Alá! ¡Qué torta tan rica! Uf… Esto es el paraíso.
A tantas exclamaciones alzó la vista el ferí, y notando la colocación de los manjares y los insinuantes gestos de su atento criado no pudo menos de sonreírse y decirle:
—Come tú, hijo mío, lo que quieras, pues yo no tengo gana.
Capítulo 2º - El viaje a Libar
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- 11 January 2024
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Llegaron en estas pláticas al pie de una alta montaña, que, casi como peñón tajado, estaba sola entre otras muchas que la rodeaban. Corría por su falda un manso arroyuelo y hacíase por toda su redondez un prado tan verde y vicioso que daba contento a los ojos que la miraban.
Cervantes, parte 1ª, libro 3 del Quijote.Quedaron todos cabizbajos y pensativos después de la ida de los moros; parecíales a doña Elvira y a don Sancho, que no era realidad sino solo terrorífica visión lo que habían visto; María, turbada, temiendo la justa reconvención de los huéspedes, sentose en un rincón, y, fingiendo candoroso semblante, se puso a mondar alubias; don Sancho principiara a pasear arriba y abajo, y doña Elvira fue la que primero rompió la palabra, diciendo:
—Convenid, don Sancho, que sois curioso en demasía con sus puntas de desatento.
—Convenido, convenidísimo estoy; el ímpetu de esta mi curiosidad, que no me es dado contener, se parece a río caudaloso que se desborda.
—A los tormentosos ríos se les pone su dique; el de la curiosidad impertinente e indiscreta es la razón; hoy, por ella, nos habéis puesto a dos dedos del precipicio.
—¿Mas quién pudiera, señora, imaginar que aquella dichosa puerta encerrase un subterráneo, que aquel subterráneo tuviese otra salida, y que por la otra salida entrasen moros? Vaya, esta es una cadena que solo el diablo puede desliar y entender.
—A trueque de no enfadarme con vos como debiera, os mando que a ninguna persona viviente digáis la menor palabra de lo que habéis visto; además, lo requiere vuestra propia seguridad.
—No tengáis cuidado, callaré más que un mudo, pues no olvido las sabrosas y enconfitadas razones que me dijo al partir el amigo moro; a vos os trató con más dulzura; ¡ya se ve, las faldas tienen sus privilegios! Pero mirad la gatita muerta de Zulema con qué privilegio parece que no enturbia el agua, ¡fiarse luego de mujeres! No en mis días; juro por Apolo y las diez musas que no me he de dejar engañar de ninguna.
—Ni creo que tampoco ninguna se dejará engañar por vos.
Capítulo 10º - Los arcabuceros
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- Boydell & Brewer
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- 11 January 2024
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- 30 May 2023, pp 96-100
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Summary
Envió dos capitanes… Con trescientos arcabuceros escogidos entre la gente que a la sazón había quedado, que era poca… Hombres levantados sin pagas, sin el son de la caja, concejiles que tienen el robo por sueldo y la codicia por superior.
Guerra de Granada, por Mendoza, libro 2º, pág. 3ª.Apenas se ausentaron los cazadores de la alquería de Pedro, retiráronse los moros por el subterráneo con precipitado paso, y no curaron cerrar cual otras veces la trampa que ocultaba la entrada; tampoco se notó esta falta por los habitantes de la huerta, y tal imprevisión fue causa que pudiesen Osmin y Santiago llevarse robada a María a Benameda, pues fuera de otro modo imposible mediante a que Pedro, siempre al salir de su casa, la dejaba cerrada, temiendo en aquellos tiempos de revueltas algún atropellamiento de parte de los cristianos. Figúrense las almas sensibles cuál sería el dolor de este tierno padre al hallarse sin el dulce objeto de su amor; la llamó y buscó por todas partes y, al notar abierta la trampa, sospechó lo que podía ser, volvió otra vez a Ronda, y avisara al corregidor que le habían robado a su hija; ofreciose este que haría las oportunas diligencias y envió en el acto dos alguaciles a que de los vecinos de la alquería indagasen las circunstancias del hecho; de estos se supo que el día anterior habían visto tres moros rodando en torno de la casa de Pedro y que, aunque no pudieron conocer a dos, el uno era sin duda Alí Jarillo; opinó entonces el juez que este moro, por incomodar al querellante porque se había hecho cristiano, le habría robado a su hija; reunió inmediatamente a dos o tres regidores y sacaron de acuerdo que debía irse al instante a Benastepar y traer presos a Ronda al padre y hermana de Jarillo, caso que él, como era creíble, no se hallase en el pueblo.
Este lugar era el único que aún conservaba en la serranía el libre ejercicio de la religión mahometana, y allí se habían refugiado las familias del ferí, Alí Jarillo, Hacem y otros; no es esto decir que los cristianos pensasen en lo sucesivo dejar tranquilos los vecinos de Benastepar, esperaban un solo plausible pretexto para acabar con ellos;
Capítulo 11º - La quema de Benastepar
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- Book:
- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- Boydell & Brewer
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- 11 January 2024
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- 30 May 2023, pp 101-106
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Summary
Crece la sorda y tragadora llama
Traspasa a Darro, y de un horrible estruendo
Pasó al molino, y dio la nueva a Alhama.
Piedras de nuevo, y leños esparciendo,
Que amenazaban la soberbia cumbre,
Y a trechos van las torres combatiendo;
Bajan vigas de inmensa pesadumbre,
Ladrillo y planchas por el aire vago,
Y espesos globos de violenta lumbre.
Rimas de Espinel a don Juan Téllez Girón, marqués de Peñafiel.Endilgó los pasos don Alonso hacia Benadalid, y a poca distancia parose junto a una fuente; mientras acababan de llegar los rezagados, rebosaba la indignación en su pecho al ver las llamaradas y al oír los lamentos que de Benastepar salían; dos o tres veces estuvo tentado de tornar a socorrer a aquellos infelices; mas el temor de que se le mirase más bien como contrario que como amigo, y el embriagamiento de la mayor parte de su gente lo detuvo; cuando creyó que ya todos estaban reunidos, prosiguió cabizbajo su ruta exhalando de tiempo en tiempo terribles maldiciones y amenazas contra los incendiarios, que trémulos, y al parecer arrepentidos, en pos de él caminaban; extraviáronse un poco de la senda con la oscuridad de la noche, y tirándose a la derecha, no lo conocieron hasta que se hallaron junto al cerro de Benameda; mientras buscaban de nuevo el camino, se presentó a la vista de don Alonso en un estrecho callejón por donde entonces iba un moro montado en su brioso alazán; notó Aguilar, a la claridad de la madrugada, que ya empezaba a ser viva, sus gallardas facciones, alta estatura y despejado talante.
—¿Quién va allá? —dijo el moro— Dejad el paso libre a los transeúntes, cualesquiera que seáis.
—Mucho orgullo gasta el amigo —replicó don Alonso.
—Que lo gaste o no, nada os importa.
—Parece, según vuestra habla, que traéis junto un tercio de escogidos soldados.
—Mi brazo vale solo por ellos; dejadme, os repito, el paso franco.
—Antes mi espada castigará tan temeraria plática.
—Pues bien, salgamos a sitio a propósito.
—Salgamos.
Capítulo 1º - La alquería
- Edited by Javier Muñoz de Morales Galiana, Daniel Muñoz Sempere
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- Book:
- El ferí de Benastepar, o los moros de Sierra Bermeja
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- Boydell & Brewer
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- 11 January 2024
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Summary
Aquí la verde pera
Con la manzana hermosa
De gualda y roja sangre matizada,
Y de color de cera
La cermeña olorosa
Tengo, y la endrina de color morada;
Aquí de la enramada
Parra que al olmo enlaza
Melosas uvas cojo,
Y en cantidad recojo
Al tiempo que las ramas desenlaza
El caluroso estío
Membrillos que coronan este río.
Canción de Lope de Vega.Bermejeaba ya el sol en el oriente una hermosa mañana del mes de agosto, cuando viose salir por la Puerta del Almocábar escogida aunque numerosa cabalgada; indicaban sus armas y arreos que festiva y bulliciosa cacería era su objeto. Mientras, dejando a un lado la fuente de los Gomeles, aguijoneaban sus caballos por el camino de Sijuela, diré a mis lectores en cortas palabras las personas que en ella iban. Montada en un brioso alazán, era la primera doña Elvira de Castro, de veinte años, esbelta estatura, facciones peregrinas y poco comunes, pelo negro como el ébano, que contrastaba perfectamente con las blancas plumas de su verde sombrerillo de caza; la hacían en extremo hermosa; no era menos admirable por su bella índole, cultivado talento, facilidad en explicarse, destreza en montar a caballo y en disparar una flecha; había poco tiempo que pasara a Ronda desde Sevilla, y fue desde entonces el pasmo de cuantos lograron conocerla; su melancólico temperamento, y, por consiguiente, su carácter sostenido y varonil, la hacían aún más seria y circunspecta que lo que era en realidad; iba a su lado su padre don Felipe, caballero de costumbres blandas y suaves, buen amigo, pero sin tener jamás opinión propia, y condescendiente con todos, hasta rayar en debilidad.
Seguían don Tello de Lara y don Juan Pérez, sujetos de ilustre alcurnia, y de los ganadores de Ronda; tendría el primero como cuarenta años, pariente cercano de don Felipe, y al servicio de los Reyes Católicos, pero rico en haciendas; ni tomaba la soldada que el rey diera a otros, ni quiso tierras ni olivos en el repartimiento que después de la toma de Ronda hicieran entre sí los vencedores de los bienes de los moros.