Language anxiety is a prevalent phenomenon in second language learning. This experiment examines the arousal of anxiety caused by the introduction of a video camera at various points in a vocabulary learning task. Seventy-two students of 1st-year university French were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (a) one group who had anxiety aroused during their initial exposure to the stimuli, (b) a second group who had anxiety aroused when they began to learn the meanings of the words, (c) a third group who had anxiety aroused when they were asked to produce the French word (when prompted with the English), and (d) a control group who did not experience anxiety arousal. Significant increases in state anxiety were reported in all three groups when the video camera was introduced, and concomitant deficits in vocabulary acquisition were observed. It is concluded that the stage at which anxiety arises has implications for any remedial action taken to reduce the effects of language anxiety.

This study compared younger and older adult monolingual English speakers and bilingual (English/Spanish) speakers on aspects of language learning aptitude, specifically, measures of auditory perception and memory span, in English and Spanish. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed no age difference in auditory memory span in English; however, both older and younger bilinguals performed better than monolinguals on these tasks. Younger subjects performed better than older subjects on measures of auditory perception in English. Older and younger monolinguals performed similarly on a measure of auditory memory span in Spanish, whereas younger monolinguals demonstrated more accuracy on Spanish perception tasks. The Spanish proficiency of the younger bilinguals far exceeded that of the older bilinguals, and their performance was better on measures of auditory memory and perception in Spanish even when differences in proficiency were statistically controlled. However, a comparison of subgroups of older and younger bilinguals showing a similar level of Spanish proficiency revealed that the performance of the older bilinguals approached fairly closely the performance of the younger subjects on the Spanish auditory memory and perception tasks.

The purpose of this study, which focused on the word taco as spoken in Spanish and English, was to explore the word as a unit in second language (L2) speech acquisition. As expected, acoustic measurements revealed that Spanish and English monolinguals' renditions of taco differed systematically. It was also shown that the extent to which Spanish/English bilinguals approximated English phonetic norms for any one segment of taco was correlated with their approximation for the other three segments, and that early learners differentiated Spanish versus English taco more than did late learners. It also appeared that the bilinguals produced /t/ with less English-like voice onset time (VOT) values in English taco than in other English words without a cognate in Spanish. In a perception experiment, listeners were able to identify the native language of Spanish and English monolinguals on the basis of their production of taco. The listeners heard larger differences between Spanish and English taco tokens spoken by early than late learners of English L2. Two additional perception experiments assessed further the phonetic dimensions that listeners use to determine language identity and to gauge bilinguals' speech production accuracy. Listeners assigned to language identification and goodness rating tasks responded to acoustic information distributed over all four segments in taco, although the VOT of the word-initial /t/ appeared to be the single most important phonetic dimension. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that (a) bilinguals' accuracy in producing the various segments of a second language word may be interrelated and (b) in judging L2 speech, listeners respond to phonetic errors distributed over the entire word.

The growth of cognitive science as a field, or at least as a descriptive term, indicates an emerging scientific consensus that many fundamental human capacities require collaborative and interdisciplinary research to make further fundamental headway. Language, as central to our essential humanity as anything is, represents one area in which massive amounts of interdisciplinary research is underway at virtually every research institution in the world.

This paper focuses on the process of Japanese learners' acquisition ofthe locality requirement of English reflexives. Previous studies seem to agree that the initial hypothesis of learners is an overgeneral one that allows nonlocal binding. Research findings diverge, however, as to whether or not learners can approximate the target grammar without the help of negativeevidence as their overall proficiency in English increases. This paper provides evidence of a successful retreat from the initial overgeneral hypothesis. In an attempt to explain the observed progress, it is suggested that a nonsyntactic aspect of language plays a role here, that is, viewpoint in sentence processing. This notion may help us to specify the type of evidence that can trigger learners' progress in the acquisition of the English reflexive.

This study examines the role of grammatical prerequisites on code-switching in young bilingual children. It is proposed that code-switching is constrained not only by grammatical properties of the languages involved; it is also regulated by principles and mechanisms of language use. Constraints on code-switching are therefore defined as processing principles that, however, depend on grammatical knowledge. They ensure that switching does not result in a violation of grammatical coherence, defined in terms of both linear sequencing and structural configuration. Some of these claims are tested empirically, analyzing the speech of two bilingual children acquiring French and German simultaneously. It is argued that even in the earliest uses of mixing, constraints are not violated; in many cases they do not apply because the relevant grammatical relations do not yet hold. Code-switching is nevertheless used from early on in accordance with these constraints, as soon as a certain kind of grammatical knowledge is accessible. Most importantly, functional categories have to be implemented in the child's grammar.

This paper offers an alternative interpretation for what has been called the defective tense hypothesis, the primacy of aspect hypothesis, or simply the aspect hypothesis in the literature on first and second language acquisition of tense and aspect. The aspect hypothesis states that first and second language learners will initially be influenced by the inherent semantic aspect of verbs or predicates in the acquisition of tense and aspect markers associated with or affixed to these verbs. Our account focuses on the observation that adult native speakers also appear to adhere to this primacy of inherent semantic aspect in the relative quantitative distribution of tense-aspect markers in their speech. We argue that a small set of cognitive operating principles and the notion of prototypicality account for this behavior in learners. Moreover, we argue that these principles are a consequence of how learners and native speakers alike organize information and their perspectives on it in ongoing discourse.

The role of conversational interactions in the development of a second language has been central in the recent second language acquisition literature. While a great deal is now known about the way in which nonnative speakers interact with native speakers and other nonnative speakers, little is known about the lasting effects of these interactions on a nonnative's linguistic development. This paper specifically investigates the relationship among input, interaction, and second language production. Through data from native–nonnative speaker interactions in a direction-giving task, we show that both modified input and interaction affect task performance. However, only interaction has an effect on subsequent task performance.

Reading in a second language (L2) can produce inefficient processing in otherwise proficient readers. This paper argues that mental translation during L2 reading may facilitate the generation and conservation of meaning by allowing the reader to represent portions of L2 text that exceed cognitive limits in a familiar, memory-efficient form. Fifty-one intermediate-level French students, in high, middle, and low reading ability groups, participated in think-aloud interviews while reading French texts. The relative frequency of translation use among these groups is compared at the beginning and end of a semester and is found to decrease with level of reading ability. The specific contexts in which students relied on translation are identified, and functional benefits and strategic uses of translation are discussed. Finally, hypotheses and questions are developed for future research.

This paper describes a cognitive framework for explaining the acquisition and use of a second language. The framework is based on the identification of two cognitive processing components, called analysis of knowledge and control of processing, that jointly function to develop proficiency in the language. The framework is explained briefly and then applied to five issues in second language acquisition: the similarity of first and second language learning, the starting point for second language acquisition, consciousness, variability, and instruction.

This paper reports on a competition model experiment designed to investigate the sentence-processing strategies of English-speaking learners of Japanese (JFL learners) and Japanese-speaking learners of English. The participants were required to identify the sentence subject of a series of English and Japanese word strings, each consisting of one verb and two nouns, in which noun-animacy, word-order, and case-marking cues either competed or were consistent with each other. The results indicated a correlation between learners' proficiency in Japanese and case-marker dependency in Japanese strings. JFL learners primarily resorted to animacy cues to interpret Japanese strings, suggesting a prepotent role for lexical semantics. There was little evidence of transfer of surface word order, although some JFL learners resorted to the Japanese canonical SOV order to a greater extent than the native Japanese.

This study attempts to test aspects of the input hypothesis (Krashen, 1980, 1983, 1985) and Long's modification of it (Long, 1980, 1983a, 1985). Specifically, it experimentally tests the hypothesis that both input and interactional modifications facilitate second language acquisition, using Japanese as the target language. Three experimental groups were differentiated in terms of input and interaction conditions: (1) unmodified input with no interaction, (2) premodified input with no interaction, and (3) unmodified input with the chance for negotiated interaction. The groups were compared in terms of (a) their degree of comprehension of the input and (b) their subsequent retention of vocabulary items and acquisition of two Japanese locative structures. The results indicated that moment-to-moment comprehension was highest for the negotiated interaction group, whereas there was no significant difference between the two noninteraction groups. Furthermore, there was no correlation found between differences in moment-to-moment comprehension and gains in vocabulary recognition and acquisition of structures, though significant gains on both measures were found for all three groups. Discussion of these findings centers on the relationship between comprehension and acquisition.

The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to draw attention to the research on speech perception and, second, to use the results for a reassessment of the contribution of innate capacities versus external stimulation in conjunction with age in first and second language acquisition. The theoretical framework is the universal theory of language acquisition. The focus is on the functional potential of the biological substrate rather than its anatomy.

Neonates are innately capable of two major modes of auditory perception, namely, categorical and continuous perception. The interaction of these two modes allows infants to develop the perceptual categories of their ambient language(s). The continuous mode functions as a monitoring device in shaping the categories of the target(s). Various kinds of evidence are reviewed that suggest that these original sensory abilities remain unchanged throughout an individual's lifespan, but they become difficult to access during later stages of life, such as in adult L2 acquisition, because of the way perceptual-phonological information is stored in memory and/or activated in language processing. There are no biologically based restrictions as to the number of languages that can be learned, or the age ranges during which this can happen.

This study concerns the ability of adults to achieve nativelike competence in second language when the acquisition context lacks formal instruction and, therefore, more closely resembles the environment for first language acquisition. The study presents the results of extensive testing of an adult who has apparently acquired native proficiency in Egyptian Arabic (EA) in an untutored setting. The goal is to determine to what extent her linguistic competence matches that of native speakers. Measures employed to assess her level of achievement are a speech production task, a grammaticality judgment task, a translation task, an anaphoric interpretation task, and an accent recognition task. Results are compared to those of native speakers as well as to those of a proficient learner of EA with extensive formal instruction. The results lead the authors to reexamine the critical period hypothesis while addressing the role of talent in adult language learning. The study concludes with an evaluation of our subject's language learning history to discover what factors differentiate her from less successful naturalistic adult acquirers.

The present paper isolates certain domain-general cognitive processes involved in decision making and examines their instantiations in adult second language acquisition (SLA). After reviewing important differences between mature and immature cognition, I discuss the epistemological categories and concepts that underlie decision making. I then address decision making from the point of view of fallibility—for example, maladaptive biases that mediate learners' decisions—and I suggest that some impediments to success in SLA may be the result of mature domain-general decision making. The heuristic value of research in the area of decision making is emphasized.

The present paper addresses the argument that access to UG in SLA implies an asymmetrical knowledge of ungrammaticality, which is evidenced in superior accuracy and uniformity in learners' judgments of ungrammatical structures versus grammatical structures (Felix, 1988; Zobl, 1992). I attempt to show that the asymmetry position is conceptually defective, that the evidence for it is inconclusive and inappropriate, and that the evidence adduced is contradicted by other data.

This paper examines how the cognitive notion of attention has been employed in SLA and how it is understood in cognitive science. It summarizes recent research on attention from cognitive and neuroscience approaches. Some reformulations of problems raised in SLA research related to attention are proposed. Current research offers detailed ideas about attention and its component processes. These ideas, elaborated theoretically and empirically in cognitive neuroscience, may help untangle some important but difficult issues in SLA. Early, coarse-grained conceptions of attention, such as the limited-capacity metaphor or the automatic versus controlled processing dichotomy, are recast into an integrated human attention system with three separate yet interrelated networks: alertness, orientation, and detection. This finer grained analysis of attention is employed in a model of the role of attention in SLA.

This paper responds to David Birdsong's discussion of the positions and the data presented in Felix (1988) and Zobl (1992). We attempt to clarify a number of misconceptions that we feel characterize his discussion and elaborate further on the performance and competence issues contained in the earlier papers.