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Use of antimicrobials in the treatment of calf diarrhea: a systematic review
- C. Bernal-Córdoba, R. Branco-Lopes, L. Latorre-Segura, M. de Barros-Abreu, E. D. Fausak, N. Silva-del-Río
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- Journal:
- Animal Health Research Reviews / Volume 23 / Issue 2 / December 2022
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 13 January 2023, pp. 101-112
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The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the scientific literature evaluating the efficacy and comparative efficacy of antimicrobials (AMs) for the treatment of diarrhea in calves. Eligible studies were non- and randomized controlled trials evaluating an AM intervention against a positive and negative control, with at least one of the following outcomes: fecal consistency score, fever, dehydration, appetite, attitude, weight gain, and mortality. Four electronic databases were searched. Titles and abstracts (three reviewers) and full texts (two reviewers) were screened. A total of 2899 studies were retrieved; 11 studies met the inclusion criteria. The risk of bias was assessed. Most studies had incomplete reporting of trial design and results. Eight studies compared AMs to a negative control (placebo or no treatment). Among eligible studies, the most common outcomes reported were diarrhea severity (n = 6) and mortality (n = 6). Eligible studies evaluated very different interventions and outcomes; thus, a meta-analysis was not performed. The risk of bias assessment revealed concerns with reporting of key trial features, including disease and outcome definitions. Insufficient evidence is available in the scientific literature to assess the efficacy of AMs in treating calf diarrhea.
Current status of the Critically Endangered Black-winged Trumpeter Psophia obscura in one of its last strongholds
- ELILDO A. R. CARVALHO, JR, ELOÍSA N. MENDONÇA, ALEXANDRE M. C. LOPES, TORBJØRN HAUGAASEN
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- Journal:
- Bird Conservation International / Volume 33 / 2023
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 11 July 2022, e12
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The ‘Critically Endangered’ Black-winged Trumpeter Psophia obscura is endemic to the Belém Centre of Endemism in extreme eastern Amazonia and has a declining population and range. Here we report on a five-year (2016–2020) systematic camera-trap (n = 61) study of the species in Gurupi Biological Reserve, one of its most important conservation areas. We used a multi-season occupancy model to identify factors affecting occupancy rates and to assess occupancy trends in the reserve. Occupancy was negatively related to elevation and site-level tree density, and was positively related to post-logging recovery times. Average annual occupancy rates remained stable throughout the study period (ranging between 0.57 and 0.67) and this stability was largely driven by high between-year survival rates. Results confirm that the Black-winged Trumpeter is an interior-forest specialist that is highly sensitive to forest disturbance, which underlines the importance of the Gurupi Biological Reserve as a core site for the conservation of the species. However, the species is long-lived, so continuous monitoring is needed to further clarify population trends. We also recommended that the status of the species in other forest remnants, most of which remain unprotected, is assessed.
Effect of cactus pear as a moistening additive in the production of rehydrated corn grain silage
- D. M. Pereira, E. M. Santos, J. S. Oliveira, F. N. S. Santos, R. C. Lopes, M. A. C. Santos, Y. R. Corrêa, E. S. Justino, G. M. Leite, P. G. B. Gomes, G. F. L. Cruz, P. C. Torres Júnior
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- Journal:
- The Journal of Agricultural Science / Volume 159 / Issue 9-10 / November 2021
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 10 January 2022, pp. 731-742
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The current study aimed to evaluate the effects of cactus pear as a moistening additive on fermentative and microbiological characteristics, aerobic stability (AS), chemical composition and in situ rumen degradability of corn grain silage at different opening times. A completely randomized experimental design was adopted in a 4 × 3 factorial scheme with four levels of dry matter (DM) (50; 60; 70 and 80% of DM) and three opening times (30; 60 and 120 days after ensiling), with four replications. There was an effect of interaction (P < 0.05) between the DM levels and opening times on silage yeast population, effluent losses, gas losses, dry matter recovery (DMR), AS of the silage and on lactic acid bacteria, mould and yeast populations after AS trial. The 60% DM level presented DMR values above 930 g/kg of DM. However, the lowest AS time (96.52 h) was observed in silages with 60% DM at 60 days after ensiling, although all silages have shown high AS. The DM in situ degradability of the ensiled mass increased after the ensiling process at all DM levels and opening times, with the 60% DM content showing the best result. When using cactus pear as a corn grain moistening additive, the 60% DM level is recommended when the opening time is up 120 days.
Antipsychotic Medication Adherence Scale (AMAS): Development and preliminary psychometric properties
- M.J. Martins, A.T. Pereira, C.B. Carvalho, P. Castilho, A.C. Lopes, A. Oliveira, C. Roque, D. Mota, F. Tróia, M. Bajouco, N. Madeira, O. Matos, P. Santos, R. Leite, S. Morais, T. Santos, T. Santos, V. Nogueira, V. Santos, A. Macedo
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- Journal:
- European Psychiatry / Volume 33 / Issue S1 / March 2016
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 23 March 2020, pp. s258-s259
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Introduction
Although being highly consensual that antipsychotic adherence is an important outcome predictor in psychosis, existing reviews have found mean rates of adherence around 40–60%. Several aspects, such as patient-related, medication-related, environmental-related variables have been described as important predictors.
AimsThis study aim is to develop, administer and present preliminary psychometric properties of a new scale for antipsychotic medication adherence that includes different types of predictors (clinical, psychosocial, and practical among others).
MethodsThe “AMAS” was developed by a multidisciplinary team and was based on recent research on factors influencing antipsychotic adherence. The scale evolved from multiple drafts and experts were contacted in order to improve the final version. Over 50 patients with a diagnosis of a psychotic-spectrum disorder taking antipsychotic medication will be assessed with the “AMAS” and the Medication Adherence Rating Scale. Additionally, each patient's psychiatrist will fill in a form with demographic and clinical variables (such as type of symptoms, previous adherence problems, current adherence, insight and other relevant variables).
ResultsThis is an ongoing study and the sample is still being collected (scheduled finish date: February/2016). Our statistical analysis’ plan includes: reliability analysis (Chronbach's alpha, alpha if item deleted, inter item correlations and covariances and item-total correlations); validity (convergent validity); factorial analysis.
ConclusionsIt is hypothesized that the “AMAS” will be a practical, reliable and valid unidimentional instrument with clinical utility assessing adherence to antipsychotics. The “AMAS” can be also useful in assessing intervention targets (e.g. psychoterapeutical, psychoeducational) to enhance adherence.
Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.
High salt intake during puberty leads to cardiac remodelling and baroreflex impairment in lean and obese male Wistar rats
- G. B. Rosa, L. C. Cavalet, A. B. S. de Melo, M. D. F. Junior, P. R. Lopes, R. A. Cardoso, L. A. Ferreira, F. D. Tomé, P. R. A. Nagib, M. R. N. Celes, G. R. Pedrino, C. H. Castro, P. C. F. Mathias, R. M. Gomes
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- Journal:
- British Journal of Nutrition / Volume 123 / Issue 6 / 28 March 2020
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 13 December 2019, pp. 642-651
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- 28 March 2020
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Modern lifestyle increases the prevalence of obesity and its co-morbidities in the young population. High-salt (HS) diets are associated with hypertension and cardiac remodelling. The present study evaluated the potential effects of cardiometabolic programming induced by HS intake during puberty in lean and obese rats. Additionally, we investigated whether HS could exacerbate the impairment of cardiovascular parameters in adult life due to postnatal early overnutrition (PO). At postnatal day 3 (PN3), twenty-four litters of Wistar rats were divided into two groups: normal litter (NL, nine pups/dam) and small litter (SL, three pups/dam) throughout the lactation period; weaning was at PN21. At PN30, the pups were subdivided into two more groups: NL plus HS (NLHS) and SL plus HS (SLHS). HS intake was from PN30 until PN60. Cardiovascular parameters were evaluated at PN120. SL rats became overweight at adulthood due to persistent hyperphagia; however, HS exposure during puberty reduced the weight gain and food intake of NLHS and SLHS. Both HS and obesity raised the blood pressure, impaired baro- and chemoreflex sensitivity and induced cardiac remodelling but no worsening was observed in the association of these factors, except a little reduction in the angiotensin type-2 receptor in the hearts from SLHS animals. Our results suggest that the response of newborn offspring to PO and juveniles to a HS diet leads to significant changes in cardiovascular parameters in adult rats. This damage may be accompanied by impairment of both angiotensin signalling and antioxidant defence in the heart.
Effect of ractopamine and conjugated linoleic acid on performance of late finishing pigs
- J. C. Panisson, A. Maiorka, S.G. Oliveira, A. Saraiva, M. S. Duarte, K. F. Silva, E. V. Santos, R. L. S. Tolentino, I. M. G. Lopes, L. L. M. Guedes, B. A. N. Silva
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The dietary inclusion of feed additives to improve the carcass characteristics of the final product is of great importance for the pork production chain. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effects of the association of ractopamine (RAC) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on the performance traits of finishing pigs during the last 26 days prior to slaughter. In total, 810 commercial hybrid barrows were used. Animals were distributed among treatments according to a randomised block design in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement, with three RAC levels (0, 5 or 10 ppm) and three CLA levels (0, 0.3 or 0.6%). Pigs fed the diet with 5 ppm RAC had higher average daily feed intake (ADFI) (2.83 kg; P < 0.05) when compared with those fed 10 ppm RAC and the control diet (2.75 and 2.74 kg, respectively). Lower ADFI values (P < 0.01) were observed with the diets containing CLA compared with the control diet with no CLA (2.73 and 2.75 v. 2.85 kg/day, respectively). The average daily weight gain of pigs fed 5 and 10 ppm RAC was +148 and +173 g/dayhigher (P < 0.001), respectively, than those fed the control diet. Dietary RAC levels influenced (P < 0.001) feed conversion ratio (FCR), which was reduced as RAC levels increased, with the pigs fed 10, 5 and 0 ppm RAC presenting FCR values of 2.57, 2.71 and 3.05, respectively. FCR also improved (P < 0.05) with the inclusion of 0.6% CLA relative to the control diet (2.70 v. 2.84, respectively). There was a significant interaction between CLA × RAC levels (P < 0.01) for final BW, loin eye area (LEA) (P < 0.05) and backfat thickness (BT) (P < 0.05). The treatments containing 10 ppm RAC + 0.6% or 0.3% CLA increased LEA and reduced BT. In conclusion, the level of 10 ppm inclusion of RAC increased the overall performance parameters of pigs and therefore improved production efficiency. The combined use of RAC and CLA promoted a lower feed conversion ratio as well as better quantitative carcass traits, as demonstrated by the higher LEA and lower BT. The dietary inclusion of CLA at 0.3% improved feed efficiency, however, without affecting LEA or BT yields.
Higher membrane fluidity mediates the increased subcutaneous fatty acid content in pigs fed reduced protein diets
- P. A. Lopes, A. P. Martins, S. V. Martins, M. S. Madeira, N. C. Santos, T. F. Moura, J. A. M. Prates, G. Soveral
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The production of pork with moderate amounts of intramuscular fat (IMF) without an increase in subcutaneous fat is highly desirable for the meat industry. Several studies indicate that dietary protein reduction during the growing–finishing period of pigs enhances IMF content, but its consequence on carcass fat deposition is still contradictory. In this study, we hypothesized that the effects of reduced protein diets (RPD), corrected or not with the limiting amino acid lysine, on subcutaneous fat deposition from pigs with distinct genotypes are mediated by adipose membranes biophysical properties. In total, 36 crossbred (Large White×Landrace×Pietrain – a lean genotype) and purebred (Alentejana breed – a fatty genotype) male pigs were randomly assigned to the control group, the RPD group or the reduced protein diet equilibrated for lysine (RPDL) group, allowing a 2×3 factorial arrangement (n=6). Backfat thickness and total fatty acid content were higher in Alentejana relative to crossbred pigs. Although dietary treatments did not change backfat thickness, RPD and RPDL increased total fatty acids content of subcutaneous fat. In order to understand this effect, adipose tissue membranes isolated from pig’s subcutaneous fat were assayed for glycerol permeability and fluidity, using 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) and 1-(4-(trimethylamino)-phenyl)-6-phenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (TMA-DPH) probes. The glycerol transport across adipose membranes was not mediated by aquaglyceroporins and remained unchanged across dietary groups. Regardless of lysine correction, RPD increased membrane fluidity at the hydrocarbon region (lower DPH fluorescence anisotropy) in both genotypes of pigs. This result was associated with a lower ratio between oleic acid and linoleic acid on membrane’s fatty acid composition. Adipose membrane’s cholesterol content was independent from genotype and diet. Taken together, the present study shows that dietary protein reduction is successful in maintaining backfat thickness, although a negative side effect was observed on total fatty acids in subcutaneous fat, which may be due to changes in the fluidity of adipose membranes.
Optimization of the Amount of Zinc in the Graphitization Reaction for Radiocarbon AMS Measurements at LAC-UFF
- Kita D Macario, Fabiana M Oliveira, Vinicius N Moreira, Eduardo Q Alves, Carla Carvalho, Renata M Jou, Maria Isabela Oliveira, Bruna B Pereira, Izabela Hammerschlag, Bruna Netto, Amanda P Seixas, João Vitor P Malafaia, Lara Moreira, Luana Cunha, Ayrton Assumpção, Pedro Mallet, Loise Lima, Fabio Lopes, Maikel Diaz, Ingrid S Chanca, Paulo R S Gomes
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- Journal:
- Radiocarbon / Volume 59 / Issue 3 / June 2017
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 26 July 2016, pp. 885-891
- Print publication:
- June 2017
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The Radiocarbon Laboratory of the Universidade Federal Fluminense, in Brazil, has been successfully applying the zinc reduction method for graphitization of carbon samples since the development of its early protocols in 2009. Successive methodological research aiming to improve and, ultimately, optimize the precision and accuracy of our results indicates that graphitization temperatures as low as 460°C promote erratic 13C isotopic fractionation, but an approximately constant fractionation of about –5‰ is achieved at 520°C. In this work, we present isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) δ13C results for 14C reference materials graphitized at 550°C with variable amounts of zinc. Based on the results obtained from the addition of 20, 35, and 50 mg of zinc, we conclude that a slightly lower variation in 13C isotope fractionation during graphitization is obtained with less zinc. Moreover, the average isotopic fractionation is not altered by increasing the graphitization temperature from 520°C to 550°C.
Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of two Toxoplasma gondii isolates in free-range chickens from Uberlândia, Brazil
- C. S. LOPES, P. S. FRANCO, N. M. SILVA, D. A. O. SILVA, E. A. V. FERRO, H. F. J. PENA, R. M. SOARES, S. M. GENNARI, J. R. MINEO
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- Journal:
- Epidemiology & Infection / Volume 144 / Issue 9 / July 2016
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 January 2016, pp. 1865-1875
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The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in free-range chickens from Uberlândia, Minas Gerais state, Brazil, and characterize the genotypic and phenotypic features of two isolates of this parasite, considering the importance of these hosts in the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis. Serum samples from 108 free-range chickens were obtained from ten different districts, and submitted to the modified agglutination test (MAT) for the presence of anti-T. gondii antibodies, and brain and heart tissue samples from infected chickens were processed for mouse bioassay. An overall seroprevalence of 71·3% was found and antibody titres ranged from 16 to 4096. After confirmation of seropositivity by mouse bioassay, the determination of the T. gondii genotypes of two isolates was performed by PCR–RFLP, using primers for the following markers: SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22–8, c29–2, L358, PK1, new SAG2, Apico and CS3. These T. gondii isolates, designated TgChBrUD1and TgChBrUD2, were obtained from heart samples of free-range chickens. The TgChBrUD1 isolate belonged to ToxoDB PCR–RFLP genotype 11 and the TgChBrUD2 isolate belonged to ToxoDB PCR–RFLP genotype 6. Both isolates demonstrated high virulence in a rodent model, with the TgChBrUD1 isolate able to induce brain cysts, in accord with its pattern of multiplication rates in human fibroblast culture. Taken together, these results reveal high prevalence of T. gondii infection in free-range chickens throughout Uberlândia, indicating an important degree of oocyst environmental contamination and the existence of considerable risk for T. gondii transmission to humans by consumption of free-range chicken as a food source.
Contributors
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- By Mitchell Aboulafia, Frederick Adams, Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert M. Adams, Laird Addis, James W. Allard, David Allison, William P. Alston, Karl Ameriks, C. Anthony Anderson, David Leech Anderson, Lanier Anderson, Roger Ariew, David Armstrong, Denis G. Arnold, E. J. Ashworth, Margaret Atherton, Robin Attfield, Bruce Aune, Edward Wilson Averill, Jody Azzouni, Kent Bach, Andrew Bailey, Lynne Rudder Baker, Thomas R. Baldwin, Jon Barwise, George Bealer, William Bechtel, Lawrence C. Becker, Mark A. Bedau, Ernst Behler, José A. Benardete, Ermanno Bencivenga, Jan Berg, Michael Bergmann, Robert L. Bernasconi, Sven Bernecker, Bernard Berofsky, Rod Bertolet, Charles J. Beyer, Christian Beyer, Joseph Bien, Joseph Bien, Peg Birmingham, Ivan Boh, James Bohman, Daniel Bonevac, Laurence BonJour, William J. Bouwsma, Raymond D. Bradley, Myles Brand, Richard B. Brandt, Michael E. Bratman, Stephen E. Braude, Daniel Breazeale, Angela Breitenbach, Jason Bridges, David O. Brink, Gordon G. Brittan, Justin Broackes, Dan W. Brock, Aaron Bronfman, Jeffrey E. Brower, Bartosz Brozek, Anthony Brueckner, Jeffrey Bub, Lara Buchak, Otavio Bueno, Ann E. Bumpus, Robert W. Burch, John Burgess, Arthur W. Burks, Panayot Butchvarov, Robert E. Butts, Marina Bykova, Patrick Byrne, David Carr, Noël Carroll, Edward S. Casey, Victor Caston, Victor Caston, Albert Casullo, Robert L. Causey, Alan K. L. Chan, Ruth Chang, Deen K. Chatterjee, Andrew Chignell, Roderick M. Chisholm, Kelly J. Clark, E. J. Coffman, Robin Collins, Brian P. Copenhaver, John Corcoran, John Cottingham, Roger Crisp, Frederick J. Crosson, Antonio S. Cua, Phillip D. Cummins, Martin Curd, Adam Cureton, Andrew Cutrofello, Stephen Darwall, Paul Sheldon Davies, Wayne A. Davis, Timothy Joseph Day, Claudio de Almeida, Mario De Caro, Mario De Caro, John Deigh, C. F. Delaney, Daniel C. Dennett, Michael R. DePaul, Michael Detlefsen, Daniel Trent Devereux, Philip E. Devine, John M. Dillon, Martin C. Dillon, Robert DiSalle, Mary Domski, Alan Donagan, Paul Draper, Fred Dretske, Mircea Dumitru, Wilhelm Dupré, Gerald Dworkin, John Earman, Ellery Eells, Catherine Z. Elgin, Berent Enç, Ronald P. Endicott, Edward Erwin, John Etchemendy, C. Stephen Evans, Susan L. Feagin, Solomon Feferman, Richard Feldman, Arthur Fine, Maurice A. Finocchiaro, William FitzPatrick, Richard E. Flathman, Gvozden Flego, Richard Foley, Graeme Forbes, Rainer Forst, Malcolm R. Forster, Daniel Fouke, Patrick Francken, Samuel Freeman, Elizabeth Fricker, Miranda Fricker, Michael Friedman, Michael Fuerstein, Richard A. Fumerton, Alan Gabbey, Pieranna Garavaso, Daniel Garber, Jorge L. A. Garcia, Robert K. Garcia, Don Garrett, Philip Gasper, Gerald Gaus, Berys Gaut, Bernard Gert, Roger F. Gibson, Cody Gilmore, Carl Ginet, Alan H. Goldman, Alvin I. Goldman, Alfonso Gömez-Lobo, Lenn E. Goodman, Robert M. Gordon, Stefan Gosepath, Jorge J. E. Gracia, Daniel W. Graham, George A. Graham, Peter J. Graham, Richard E. Grandy, I. Grattan-Guinness, John Greco, Philip T. Grier, Nicholas Griffin, Nicholas Griffin, David A. Griffiths, Paul J. Griffiths, Stephen R. Grimm, Charles L. Griswold, Charles B. Guignon, Pete A. Y. Gunter, Dimitri Gutas, Gary Gutting, Paul Guyer, Kwame Gyekye, Oscar A. Haac, Raul Hakli, Raul Hakli, Michael Hallett, Edward C. Halper, Jean Hampton, R. James Hankinson, K. R. Hanley, Russell Hardin, Robert M. Harnish, William Harper, David Harrah, Kevin Hart, Ali Hasan, William Hasker, John Haugeland, Roger Hausheer, William Heald, Peter Heath, Richard Heck, John F. Heil, Vincent F. Hendricks, Stephen Hetherington, Francis Heylighen, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Risto Hilpinen, Harold T. Hodes, Joshua Hoffman, Alan Holland, Robert L. Holmes, Richard Holton, Brad W. Hooker, Terence E. Horgan, Tamara Horowitz, Paul Horwich, Vittorio Hösle, Paul Hoβfeld, Daniel Howard-Snyder, Frances Howard-Snyder, Anne Hudson, Deal W. Hudson, Carl A. Huffman, David L. Hull, Patricia Huntington, Thomas Hurka, Paul Hurley, Rosalind Hursthouse, Guillermo Hurtado, Ronald E. Hustwit, Sarah Hutton, Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa, Harry A. Ide, David Ingram, Philip J. Ivanhoe, Alfred L. Ivry, Frank Jackson, Dale Jacquette, Joseph Jedwab, Richard Jeffrey, David Alan Johnson, Edward Johnson, Mark D. Jordan, Richard Joyce, Hwa Yol Jung, Robert Hillary Kane, Tomis Kapitan, Jacquelyn Ann K. Kegley, James A. Keller, Ralph Kennedy, Sergei Khoruzhii, Jaegwon Kim, Yersu Kim, Nathan L. King, Patricia Kitcher, Peter D. Klein, E. D. Klemke, Virginia Klenk, George L. Kline, Christian Klotz, Simo Knuuttila, Joseph J. Kockelmans, Konstantin Kolenda, Sebastian Tomasz Kołodziejczyk, Isaac Kramnick, Richard Kraut, Fred Kroon, Manfred Kuehn, Steven T. Kuhn, Henry E. Kyburg, John Lachs, Jennifer Lackey, Stephen E. Lahey, Andrea Lavazza, Thomas H. Leahey, Joo Heung Lee, Keith Lehrer, Dorothy Leland, Noah M. Lemos, Ernest LePore, Sarah-Jane Leslie, Isaac Levi, Andrew Levine, Alan E. Lewis, Daniel E. Little, Shu-hsien Liu, Shu-hsien Liu, Alan K. L. Chan, Brian Loar, Lawrence B. Lombard, John Longeway, Dominic McIver Lopes, Michael J. Loux, E. J. Lowe, Steven Luper, Eugene C. Luschei, William G. Lycan, David Lyons, David Macarthur, Danielle Macbeth, Scott MacDonald, Jacob L. Mackey, Louis H. Mackey, Penelope Mackie, Edward H. Madden, Penelope Maddy, G. B. Madison, Bernd Magnus, Pekka Mäkelä, Rudolf A. Makkreel, David Manley, William E. Mann (W.E.M.), Vladimir Marchenkov, Peter Markie, Jean-Pierre Marquis, Ausonio Marras, Mike W. Martin, A. P. Martinich, William L. McBride, David McCabe, Storrs McCall, Hugh J. McCann, Robert N. McCauley, John J. McDermott, Sarah McGrath, Ralph McInerny, Daniel J. McKaughan, Thomas McKay, Michael McKinsey, Brian P. McLaughlin, Ernan McMullin, Anthonie Meijers, Jack W. Meiland, William Jason Melanson, Alfred R. Mele, Joseph R. Mendola, Christopher Menzel, Michael J. Meyer, Christian B. Miller, David W. Miller, Peter Millican, Robert N. Minor, Phillip Mitsis, James A. Montmarquet, Michael S. Moore, Tim Moore, Benjamin Morison, Donald R. Morrison, Stephen J. Morse, Paul K. Moser, Alexander P. D. Mourelatos, Ian Mueller, James Bernard Murphy, Mark C. Murphy, Steven Nadler, Jan Narveson, Alan Nelson, Jerome Neu, Samuel Newlands, Kai Nielsen, Ilkka Niiniluoto, Carlos G. Noreña, Calvin G. Normore, David Fate Norton, Nikolaj Nottelmann, Donald Nute, David S. Oderberg, Steve Odin, Michael O’Rourke, Willard G. Oxtoby, Heinz Paetzold, George S. Pappas, Anthony J. Parel, Lydia Patton, R. P. Peerenboom, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, Adriaan T. Peperzak, Derk Pereboom, Jaroslav Peregrin, Glen Pettigrove, Philip Pettit, Edmund L. Pincoffs, Andrew Pinsent, Robert B. Pippin, Alvin Plantinga, Louis P. Pojman, Richard H. Popkin, John F. Post, Carl J. Posy, William J. Prior, Richard Purtill, Michael Quante, Philip L. Quinn, Philip L. Quinn, Elizabeth S. Radcliffe, Diana Raffman, Gerard Raulet, Stephen L. Read, Andrews Reath, Andrew Reisner, Nicholas Rescher, Henry S. Richardson, Robert C. Richardson, Thomas Ricketts, Wayne D. Riggs, Mark Roberts, Robert C. Roberts, Luke Robinson, Alexander Rosenberg, Gary Rosenkranz, Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, Adina L. Roskies, William L. Rowe, T. M. Rudavsky, Michael Ruse, Bruce Russell, Lilly-Marlene Russow, Dan Ryder, R. M. Sainsbury, Joseph Salerno, Nathan Salmon, Wesley C. Salmon, Constantine Sandis, David H. Sanford, Marco Santambrogio, David Sapire, Ruth A. Saunders, Geoffrey Sayre-McCord, Charles Sayward, James P. Scanlan, Richard Schacht, Tamar Schapiro, Frederick F. Schmitt, Jerome B. Schneewind, Calvin O. Schrag, Alan D. Schrift, George F. Schumm, Jean-Loup Seban, David N. Sedley, Kenneth Seeskin, Krister Segerberg, Charlene Haddock Seigfried, Dennis M. Senchuk, James F. Sennett, William Lad Sessions, Stewart Shapiro, Tommie Shelby, Donald W. Sherburne, Christopher Shields, Roger A. Shiner, Sydney Shoemaker, Robert K. Shope, Kwong-loi Shun, Wilfried Sieg, A. John Simmons, Robert L. Simon, Marcus G. Singer, Georgette Sinkler, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Matti T. Sintonen, Lawrence Sklar, Brian Skyrms, Robert C. Sleigh, Michael Anthony Slote, Hans Sluga, Barry Smith, Michael Smith, Robin Smith, Robert Sokolowski, Robert C. Solomon, Marta Soniewicka, Philip Soper, Ernest Sosa, Nicholas Southwood, Paul Vincent Spade, T. L. S. Sprigge, Eric O. Springsted, George J. Stack, Rebecca Stangl, Jason Stanley, Florian Steinberger, Sören Stenlund, Christopher Stephens, James P. Sterba, Josef Stern, Matthias Steup, M. A. Stewart, Leopold Stubenberg, Edith Dudley Sulla, Frederick Suppe, Jere Paul Surber, David George Sussman, Sigrún Svavarsdóttir, Zeno G. Swijtink, Richard Swinburne, Charles C. Taliaferro, Robert B. Talisse, John Tasioulas, Paul Teller, Larry S. Temkin, Mark Textor, H. S. Thayer, Peter Thielke, Alan Thomas, Amie L. Thomasson, Katherine Thomson-Jones, Joshua C. Thurow, Vzalerie Tiberius, Terrence N. Tice, Paul Tidman, Mark C. Timmons, William Tolhurst, James E. Tomberlin, Rosemarie Tong, Lawrence Torcello, Kelly Trogdon, J. D. Trout, Robert E. Tully, Raimo Tuomela, John Turri, Martin M. Tweedale, Thomas Uebel, Jennifer Uleman, James Van Cleve, Harry van der Linden, Peter van Inwagen, Bryan W. Van Norden, René van Woudenberg, Donald Phillip Verene, Samantha Vice, Thomas Vinci, Donald Wayne Viney, Barbara Von Eckardt, Peter B. M. Vranas, Steven J. Wagner, William J. Wainwright, Paul E. Walker, Robert E. Wall, Craig Walton, Douglas Walton, Eric Watkins, Richard A. Watson, Michael V. Wedin, Rudolph H. Weingartner, Paul Weirich, Paul J. Weithman, Carl Wellman, Howard Wettstein, Samuel C. Wheeler, Stephen A. White, Jennifer Whiting, Edward R. Wierenga, Michael Williams, Fred Wilson, W. Kent Wilson, Kenneth P. Winkler, John F. Wippel, Jan Woleński, Allan B. Wolter, Nicholas P. Wolterstorff, Rega Wood, W. Jay Wood, Paul Woodruff, Alison Wylie, Gideon Yaffe, Takashi Yagisawa, Yutaka Yamamoto, Keith E. Yandell, Xiaomei Yang, Dean Zimmerman, Günter Zoller, Catherine Zuckert, Michael Zuckert, Jack A. Zupko (J.A.Z.)
- Edited by Robert Audi, University of Notre Dame, Indiana
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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
- Published online:
- 05 August 2015
- Print publication:
- 27 April 2015, pp ix-xxx
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Characterization of laser-driven proton beams from near-critical density targets using copper activation
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- L. Willingale, S. R. Nagel, A. G. R. Thomas, C. Bellei, R. J. Clarke, A. E. Dangor, R. Heathcote, M. C. Kaluza, C. Kamperidis, S. Kneip, K. Krushelnick, N. Lopes, S. P. D. Mangles, W. Nazarov, P. M. Nilson, Z. Najmudin
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- Journal:
- Journal of Plasma Physics / Volume 81 / Issue 1 / January 2015
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 05 September 2014, 365810102
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Copper activation was used to characterize high-energy proton beam acceleration from near-critical density plasma targets. An enhancement was observed when decreasing the target density, which is indicative for an increased laser-accelerated hot electron density at the rear target-vacuum boundary. This is due to channel formation and collimation of the hot electrons inside the target. Particle-in-cell simulations support the experimental observations and show the correlation between channel depth and longitudinal electric field strength is directly correlated with the proton acceleration.
Diphenyl diselenide and sodium selenite associated with chemotherapy in experimental toxoplasmosis: influence on oxidant/antioxidant biomarkers and cytokine modulation
- CLEBER F. BARBOSA, ALEXANDRE A. TONIN, ALEKSANDRO S. DA SILVA, MARIA I. DE AZEVEDO, DANIELI U. MONTEIRO, EMILY P. WACZUK, THIAGO DUARTE, CARINE HERMES, GIOVANA CAMILLO, FERNANDA F. VOGEL, LUCIANA FACCIO, PAULA T. TONIN, PATRICIA WOLKMER, MARTA R. LEAL, MARTA M. M. F. DUARTE, RAFAEL N. MORESCO, SONIA T. A. LOPES, MARIO L. DE LA RUE
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- Parasitology / Volume 141 / Issue 13 / November 2014
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 08 August 2014, pp. 1761-1768
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The aim of this study was to assess the effect of sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (ST) supplemented with diphenyl diselenide and sodium selenite in experimental toxoplasmosis, on oxidant/antioxidant biomarkers and cytokine levels. Eighty-four BALB/c mice were divided in seven groups: group A (negative control), and groups B to G (infected). Blood and liver samples were collected on days 4 and 20 post infection (p.i.). Levels of thiobarbituric acid (TBA) reactive substances and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP) were assessed in liver samples. Both biomarkers were significantly increased in infected groups on day 4 p.i., while they were reduced on day 20 p.i., compared with group A. Glutathione reductase (GR) activity significantly (P<0·01) increased on day 4 p.i., in group G, compared with group A. INF-γ was significantly increased (P<0·001) in both periods, day 4 (groups B, C, F and G) and 20 p.i. (groups C, F and G). IL-10 significantly reduced (P<0·001) on day 4 p.i. in group B; however, in the same period, it was increased (P<0·001) in groups C and G, compared with group A. On day 20 p.i., IL-10 increased (P<0·001) in groups F and G. Therefore, our results highlighted that these forms of selenium, associated with the chemotherapy, were able to reduce lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation, providing a beneficial immunological balance between the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines.
Effect of heat stress and feeding phosphorus levels on pig electron transport chain gene expression
- M. M. D. C. A. Weller, L. Alebrante, P. H. R. F. Campos, A. Saraiva, B. A. N. Silva, J. L. Donzele, R. F. M. Oliveira, F. F. Silva, E. Gasparino, P. S. Lopes, S. E. F. Guimarães
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The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of temperature and different levels of available phosphorus (aP) on the expression of nine genes encoding electron transport chain proteins in the Longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle of pigs. Two trials were carried out using 48 high-lean growth pigs from two different growth phases: from 15 to 30 kg (phase 1) and from 30 to 60 kg (phase 2). Pigs from growth phase 1 were fed with three different levels of dietary aP (0.107%, 0.321% or 0.535%) and submitted either to a thermoneutral (24°C and RH at 76%) or to a heat stress (34°C and RH at 70%) environment. Pigs from growth phase 2 were fed with three different levels of dietary aP (0.116%, 0.306% or 0.496%) and submitted either to a thermoneutral (22ºC and RH at 77%) or to a heat stress (32ºC and RH at 73%) environment. Heat stress decreased (P<0.001) average daily feed intake at both growth phases. At 24°C, pigs in phase 1 fed the 0.321% aP diet had greater average daily gain and feed conversion (P<0.05) than those fed the 0.107% or 0.535% while, at 34°C pigs fed the 0.535% aP had the best performance (P<0.05). Pigs from phase 2 fed the 0.306% aP had best performance in both thermal environments. Gene expression profile was analyzed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Irrespective of growing phase, the expression of six genes was lower (P<0.05) at high temperature than at thermoneutrality. The lower expression of these genes under high temperatures evidences the effects of heat stress by decreasing oxidative metabolism, through adaptive physiological mechanisms in order to reduce heat production. In pigs from phase 1, six genes were differentially expressed across aP levels (P<0.05) in the thermoneutral and one gene in the heat stress. In pigs from phase 2, two genes were differentially expressed across aP levels (P<0.05) in both thermal environments. These data revealed strong evidence that phosphorus and thermal environments are key factors to regulate oxidative phosphorylation with direct implications on animal performance.
Stellar variability in the VVV survey: overview and first results
- M. Catelan, D. Minniti, P. W. Lucas, I. Dékány, R. K. Saito, R. Angeloni, J. Alonso-García, M. Hempel, K. Hełminiak, A. Jordán, R. Contreras Ramos, C. Navarrete, J. C. Beamín, A. F. Rojas, F. Gran, C. E. Ferreira Lopes, C. Contreras Peña, E. Kerins, L. Huckvale, M. Rejkuba, R. Cohen, F. Mauro, J. Borissova, P. Amigo, S. Eyheramendy, K. Pichara, N. Espinoza, C. Navarro, G. Hajdu, D. N. Calderón Espinoza, G. A. Muro, H. Andrews, V. Motta, R. Kurtev, J. P. Emerson, C. Moni Bidin, A.-N. Chené
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- Journal:
- Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union / Volume 9 / Issue S301 / August 2013
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 18 February 2014, pp. 395-396
- Print publication:
- August 2013
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The Vista Variables in the Vía Láctea (VVV) ESO Public Survey is an ongoing time-series, near-infrared (IR) survey of the Galactic bulge and an adjacent portion of the inner disk, covering 562 square degrees of the sky, using ESO's VISTA telescope. The survey has provided superb multi-color photometry in 5 broadband filters (Z, Y, J, H, and Ks), leading to the best map of the inner Milky Way ever obtained, particularly in the near-IR. The main part of the survey, which is focused on the variability in the Ks-band, is currently underway, with bulge fields observed between 34 and 73 times, and disk fields between 34 and 36 times. When the survey is complete, bulge (disk) fields will have been observed up to a total of 100 (60) times, providing unprecedented depth and time coverage in the near-IR. Here we provide a first overview of stellar variability in the VVV data.
BnSP-7 toxin, a basic phospholipase A2 from Bothrops pauloensis snake venom, interferes with proliferation, ultrastructure and infectivity of Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis
- DÉBORA C. O. NUNES, MÁRCIA M. N. R. FIGUEIRA, DAIANA S. LOPES, DAYANE L. NAVES DE SOUZA, LUIZ FERNANDO M. IZIDORO, ELOÍSA A. V. FERRO, MARIA A. SOUZA, RENATA S. RODRIGUES, VERIDIANA M. RODRIGUES, KELLY A. G. YONEYAMA
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- Journal:
- Parasitology / Volume 140 / Issue 7 / June 2013
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 27 February 2013, pp. 844-854
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This paper reports the effects of BnSP-7 toxin, a catalytically inactive phospholipase A2 from Bothrops pauloensis snake venom, on Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis. BnSP-7 presented activity against promastigote parasite forms both in the MTT assay, with IC50 of 58·7 μg mL−1 of toxin, and a growth curve, inhibiting parasite proliferation 60–70% at concentrations of 50–200 μg mL−1 of toxin 96 h after treatment. Also, the toxin presented effects on amastigotes, reducing parasite viability by 50% at 28·1 μg mL−1 and delaying the amastigote–promastigote differentiation process. Ultrastructural studies showed that BnSP-7 caused severe morphological changes in promastigotes such as mitochondrial swelling, nuclear alteration, vacuolization, acidocalcisomes, multiflagellar aspects and a blebbing effect in the plasma membrane. Finally, BnSP-7 interfered with the infective capacity of promastigotes in murine peritoneal macrophages, causing statistically significant infectivity-index reductions (P < 0·05) of 20–35%. These data suggest that the BnSP-7 toxin is an important tool for the discovery of new parasite targets that can be exploited to develop new drugs for treating leishmaniasis.
Histopathologic Analysis of Gills of Solea solea and Solea senegalensis Wild Marine and Aquaculture Populations
- P. R. Werneck, N. M. M. Lopes, K. R. De Moraes, A. Faustino, F. Morgado
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- Journal:
- Microscopy and Microanalysis / Volume 18 / Issue S5 / August 2012
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 28 September 2012, pp. 51-52
- Print publication:
- August 2012
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The physiological condition of Solea solea and Solea senegalensis, caught in the natural environment and in aquaculture fish farms respectively, was determined by analyzing the histological changes occurred in the gills of the animals. These two species were used because both occupy the same ecological niche but only Solea senegalensis is reared in Portuguese aquaculture farms. The analysis was performed using 19 specimens in total from both environments collected between January and March of 2011 in two different locations of the Portuguese coast (Leixões and Aveiro, Portugal). The lesions found in the gills samples corresponded to four types of fusions: basal fusion corresponding to fusions at the base of the secondary lamella; medium fusion corresponding to fusions up to half of the secondary lamella; total fusion corresponding to fusions in the total length of the lamella; apical fusion corresponding to the complete fusion of the entire lamella. Another form of lesion found were lamellar edema which consisted of two different type: apical edema corresponding to a swelling at the apex of the secondary lamella; lamellar edema corresponding to a swelling in the full length of the tissue of the secondary lamella. The last physiological modification found was the alteration of the quantity of mucous cells found and also of mucous released in the primary and secondary lamellae of the gills. The results revealed that the most commonly type of lesions found were: basal fusion (Fig. 1. C); medium fusion (Figure 1 B); apical fusion (Figure 1 A); total fusion (Figure 1 D); lamellar edema (Figure 1 E); apical edema (Figure 1 F) and mucous cells disorganization in the gills (Figure 1 G). These data are very similar to other previously reported results in histopathologic studies, and are most likely to result from: contamination with heavy metals; organic or pesticides contamination; contamination by hydrocarbons (oils, fuels; rapid changes in the temperature of the water; the time of recovery of the fishing nets in the case of Solea solea; contamination of the ice used in the storage process of Solea solea. The histological analyses are very useful to evaluate the physiological condition of the fish. The histological analyses are a very important tool which enables the rapid development of processes and supports sound ecological management decisions in order to protect and/or recover habitats and ecosystems in which these animals live, therefore, improving their physiological condition with obvious benefits as to the human consumer is concerned. The novelty in this study was the use of bottom duelling fish and the comparison established between wild specimens and aquaculture reared specimens. The final conclusion is that several types of contamination occurred both in the natural environment as in the aquaculture fish farms, resulting in the different types of lesions and physiological changes observed during our experiment.
Very Massive Stars in the local Universe
- Jorick S. Vink, Alexander Heger, Mark R. Krumholz, Joachim Puls, S. Banerjee, N. Castro, K.-J. Chen, A.-N. Chenè, P. A. Crowther, A. Daminelli, G. Gräfener, J. H. Groh, W.-R. Hamann, S. Heap, A. Herrero, L. Kaper, F. Najarro, L. M. Oskinova, A. Roman-Lopes, A. Rosen, A. Sander, M. Shirazi, Y. Sugawara, F. Tramper, D. Vanbeveren, R. Voss, A. Wofford, Y. Zhang, the participants of JD2
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- Journal:
- Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union / Volume 10 / Issue H16 / August 2012
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 05 March 2015, pp. 51-79
- Print publication:
- August 2012
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Recent studies have claimed the existence of very massive stars (VMS) up to 300 M⊙ in the local Universe. As this finding may represent a paradigm shift for the canonical stellar upper-mass limit of 150 M⊙, it is timely to discuss the status of the data, as well as the far-reaching implications of such objects. We held a Joint Discussion at the General Assembly in Beijing to discuss (i) the determination of the current masses of the most massive stars, (ii) the formation of VMS, (iii) their mass loss, and (iv) their evolution and final fate. The prime aim was to reach broad consensus between observers and theorists on how to identify and quantify the dominant physical processes.
Histochemical Evaluation of Sexual maturation Phases in Solea solea Wild Marine Populations
- P. R. Werneck, N. M. M. Lopes, K. R. De Moraes, F. Faustino, F. Morgado
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- Journal:
- Microscopy and Microanalysis / Volume 18 / Issue S5 / August 2012
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 28 September 2012, pp. 45-46
- Print publication:
- August 2012
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The histological analyzes performed in gonad cells to verify the occurrence of changes in their anatomy is of crucial importance in order to characterize the dynamics of the gonads during the sexual maturation phase of its cells in specimens of wild marine populations. These histological data, together with other reproductive data, can be used in the monitoring of marine environments in which the Solea solea (Ishiba et al., 2008) lives, namely, the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and Mediterranean sea (Ishiba et al., 2008). Therefore, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the several cellular types and its quantities and anatomies (Ishiba et al., 2008). The study was performed using a total of 19 specimens of the species Solea solea, collected between the months of January and March of 2011 in two different locations of the Portuguese coast (Aveiro and Leixões, Portugal). The gonad samples were fixated in Formalin-acetic acid-alcohol (FAA) and processed in accordance to the standard histology protocol (Culling et al., 1985). The slices of the gonads were colored with Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) (used in the study of the general structure of the gonads, as well as in the identification and localization of the different cellular types of the gonad epithelium). As a result of the study, we found 7 different types of gonad cells: I oogonia (It is not photographed ); II a Chromatin nucleolus oocytes (Fig.1. A); II b perinucleolar oocytes (Fig.1. B); III cortical alveoli oocytes (Fig.1. C); IV vitellogenic oocytes (Fig.1. D); V maturing oocyte (Fig.1. E); VI ovulated oocyte (Fig.1. F), (Hibiya, et al., 1995). The different cellular phases were found in all the gonad samples analyzed in this study and the results corresponded to those expected: a decrease in the size in the cells of the first cellular type, the oogonia and an increase in the size in the cells of all other cellular types found in the study. Histological and histochemical analyses of the Solea solea can be used in anatomic and pathological evaluations of the physiological condition of the animals, as stated previously for the muscles, where histological changes could be observed (such as: degeneration and atrophy of the muscle bundles). In the future, the analytical determination of histological and histochemical changes in the gonads of Solea solea, in conjunction with other analytical processes, such as in situ analyzes, can potentially be used to determine and accurately characterize the physiological condition of animals sampled in any natural environment.
Post-stroke dementia: the contribution of thalamus and basal ganglia changes
- Marcos Antonio Lopes, Michael J. Firbank, Michelle Widdrington, Andrew M. Blamire, Raj N. Kalaria, John T. O'Brien
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- International Psychogeriatrics / Volume 24 / Issue 4 / April 2012
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 12 December 2011, pp. 568-576
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Background: The neurobiological basis of increased risk of dementia in stroke patients is unclear, though there are several related pathological changes, including white matter hyperintensities (WMH), and medial temporal atrophy. Subcortical gray matter structures have also been implicated in dementia resulting from vascular pathology, particularly vascular dementia. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of changes in subcortical gray matter structures to post-stroke dementia (PSD).
Methods: T1- and T2-weighted images and T2-weighted fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) images were obtained on a 3-Tesla magnetic resonance (MR) system, in four groups aged over 75 years: post-stroke with dementia (PSD; 8), post-stroke no dementia (PSnoD; 33), Alzheimer's disease (AD; 26) and controls (30). Automated software was used to measure the volume of thalamus, putamen, caudate nucleus, and hippocampus as well as total WMH volume. The number of subcortical lacunes was also counted.
Results: The number of caudate lacunes was higher in the PSnoD group, compared with AD (p = 0.029) and controls (p = 0.019). The putamen volume was smaller in the stroke and AD groups, when compared with controls. In the whole stroke group, putamen lacunes were correlated with impairment in memory (Rey test; ρ = −0.365; p = 0.031), while WMH and hippocampal volume both correlated with global dysfunction.
Conclusion: Our findings implicate a variety of neurobiological substrates of dementia, such as small vessel disease and Alzheimer pathology, which develop after stroke in an old older population, with a contribution from subcortical brain structures.
Differential mesenteric fat deposition in bovines fed on silage or concentrate is independent of glycerol membrane permeability
- A. P. Martins, P. A. Lopes, A. S. H. Costa, S. V. Martins, N. C. Santos, J. A. M. Prates, T. F. Moura, G. Soveral
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In the meat industry, the manipulation of fat deposition in cattle is of pivotal importance to improve production efficiency, carcass composition and ultimately meat quality. There is an increasing interest in the identification of key factors and molecular mechanisms responsible for the development of specific fat depots. This study aimed at elucidating the influence of breed and diet on adipose tissue membrane permeability and fluidity and their interplay on fat deposition in bovines. Two Portuguese autochthonous breeds, Alentejana and Barrosã, recognized as late- and early-maturing breeds, respectively, were chosen to examine the effects of breed and diet on fat deposition and on adipose membrane composition and permeability. Twenty-four male bovines from these breeds were fed on silage-based or concentrate-based diets for 11 months. Animals were slaughtered to determine their live slaughter and hot carcass weights, as well as weights of subcutaneous and visceral adipose depots. Mesenteric fat depots were excised and used to isolate adipocyte membrane vesicles where cholesterol content, fatty acid profile as well as permeability and fluidity were determined. Total accumulation of neither subcutaneous nor visceral fat was influenced by breed. In contrast, mesenteric and omental fat depots weights were higher in concentrate-fed bulls relative to silage-fed animals. Membrane fluidity and permeability to water and glycerol in mesenteric adipose tissue were found to be independent of breed and diet. Moreover, the deposition of cholesterol and unsaturated fatty acids, which may influence membrane properties, were unchanged among experimental groups. Adipose membrane lipids from the mesenteric fat depot of ruminants were rich in saturated fatty acids, and unaffected by polyunsaturated fatty acids dietary levels. Our results provide evidence against the involvement of cellular membrane permeability to glycerol on fat accumulation in mesenteric fat tissue of concentrate-fed bovines, which is consistent with the unchanged membrane lipid profile found among experimental groups.