The mineral in monomineralic glauconite pellets is an iron-rich mixed-layer illite-smectite (here called glauconite), often composed almost entirely of illite layers. The nature of the interlayering is closely analagous to that of aluminous illite-smectite and varies with the proportions of the layer types: >30 per cent smectite, randomly interstratified; 15–30 per cent smectite, allevardite-like ordering; < 15 per cent smectite, ‘IMII’ ordering.

Glauconite is analagous to aluminous illite-smectite chemically as well as structurally. A good correlation has been found between the number of potassium atoms per O10(OH)2 in structural formulas calculated from the chemical analyses and the proportion of illite layers as determined by X-ray powder diffraction methods. This relationship indicates a remarkably systematic increase in the potassium content of the illite layers with an increasing proportion of illite layers. This feature and the existence of ordered interlayering at high proportions of illite layers can be explained by crystal-chemical effects of illite layers on neighboring smectite layers. Glauconite differs from aluminous illite-smectite in that glauconite contains significantly less potassium per illite layer than does aluminous illite-smectite with the same proportion of illite layers except near the pure illite composition. The strength with which the interlayer potassium is held and the ease of conversion of smectite to illite layers in glauconite may be attributed to its 1M structure and, perhaps, to its high octahedral iron content, which lead to stronger bonding of potassium by allowing a higher tilt angle of the O-H axis of hydroxyls adjacent to the potassium ion.

The apparent octahedral cation occupancy in excess of two-thirds of the octahedral positions in many glauconites appears largely attributable to the presence of significant amounts of interlayer hydroxy-iron, aluminum and magnesium complexes in the smectite layers.

The standard method of assessing the available portion of the nutrient reservoir of a forest soil is to use a neutral salt solution, such as NH4OAc, to extract the exchangeable plus dissolved ions, which are analyzed and considered available. This approach, designed for evaluating nutrients available for the short growth term of agricultural crops, is inadequate for assessing the nutrient pool of forests where tree growth term may reach 100 yr or more.

Soil nutrient reservoirs were evaluated in two forest soils for K, Na, Ca, Mg and Fe, using an approach based on continuous extraction of the elements and kinetic analyses of the extraction rate curves. The analyses of the curves indicate that K, Na, Ca and Fe are each released at four separateconstant rates, and Mg is released at three separate constant rates. By analogy with similar kinetic studies done on monomineralic layer silicate samples, each separate extraction rate is thought to correspond to a single type of bond site in the soil. Higher extraction rates indicate greater ease of removal and are interpreted as indicating a higher degree of availability relative to the extractant.

The available K reserves of the Everett soil evaluated by standard methods, compared with annual net K uptake rates of its forest system, indicates growth limiting K deficiency in 12–17 yr. K availability assessed by kinetic analyses indicates about 100 yr supply of K is available.

Herbicide resistance in weeds significantly threatens crop production in the United States. The introduction of dicamba-resistant soybean and cotton stacked with other herbicide tolerance traits has provided farmers with the flexibility of having multiple herbicide options to diversify their weed management practices and delay resistance evolution. XtendiMax® herbicide with VaporGrip® Technology is a dicamba formulation registered for use on dicamba-resistant soybean and cotton crops by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). One of the terms of its registration includes an evaluation of inquiries on reduced weed control efficacy by growers or users of XtendiMax for suspected weed resistance. A total of 3,555 product performance inquiries (PPIs) were received from 2018 to 2021 regarding reduced weed control efficacy by dicamba. Following the criteria recommended by EPA for screening of suspected resistance in the field, a total of 103 weed accessions from 63 counties in 13 states were collected for greenhouse testing over those 4 yr. Weed accessions for greenhouse testing were collected only in states where resistance to dicamba was not yet confirmed in the weed species under investigation. The accessions, which consisted primarily of waterhemp and Palmer amaranth, were treated with dicamba at rates of 560 g ae ha−1 and 1,120 g ae ha−1. All weed accessions, except for one accession each of Palmer amaranth and waterhemp, were controlled by ≥90% with dicamba at 21 d after treatment in the greenhouse.

The social cost of greenhouse gases is important in many regulatory impact analyses. However, calculations of the social cost of greenhouse gases are highly complex and periodically revisited. We offer seven recommendations to improve current estimates. These include recommendations to use both country-level and global measures of the social cost of greenhouse gases, to use country-specific values for monetizing climate damages, to represent uncertainties by reporting distributions instead of using only central values, and to conduct a temporal distributional analysis that shows the magnitudes of climate damages across generations. We also provide recommendations for the discount rates that should be used when estimating the social cost of greenhouse gases, and the appropriate discount rates for regulatory impact analyses that include the social cost of greenhouse gases.

Herbicide resistance in Palmer amaranth and waterhemp is on the rise and poses a great concern to growers in the United States. A multistate screening was conducted for these two weed species in the United States to assess their sensitivity to glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D. The screening was designed to understand the weed sensitivity landscape and emerging trends in resistance evolution by testing each herbicide at its respective label rate and at half the label rate. A total of 303 weed seed accessions from 21 states representing 162 Palmer amaranth and 141 waterhemp seeds were collected from grower fields in 2019 and screened in greenhouse conditions. Statistical power of different sample sizes and probability of survivors in each accession were estimated for each species and herbicide treatment. Overall, the efficacy of glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D against all these accessions was excellent, with greater than 90% average injury. The variability in herbicide injury, if any, was greater with half the label rate of 2,4-D in some Palmer amaranth accessions, while waterhemp accessions had exhibited variable sensitivity with half the label rate of dicamba and glufosinate. The study highlights the value of monitoring weeds for herbicide sensitivity across broader landscape and the importance of glufosinate, dicamba, and 2,4-D herbicides in managing troublesome weeds as part of a diversified weed control program integrated with other chemical, mechanical and cultural practices.

Paleoproterozoic massive Cu-Zn±Pb±Au±Ag sulphide deposits metamorphosed to the middle-upper amphibolite facies in central-south Colorado formed in a volcanic arc setting on the edge of the Yavapai crustal province. Previously published U-Pb ages on spatially related granitoids range from ∼1.9 to ∼1.1 Ga, while Pb isotope studies on galena from massive sulphides suggest mineralization formed at around 1.8–1.7 Ga. Some deposits in the Dawson-Green Mountain trend (DGMT) and the Gunnison belt are composed of Cu-Zn-Au-(Pb-Ag) mineralization that were overprinted by later Au-(Ag-Cu-Bi-Se-Te) mineralization. Sulphide mineralization is spatially related to amphibolite and bimodal, mafic-felsic volcanic rocks (gabbro, amphibolite, rhyolite and dacite) and granitoids, but it occurs mostly in biotite-garnet-quartz±sillimanite±cordierite schists and gneisses, spatially related to nodular sillimanite rocks, and in some locations, exhalative rocks (iron formations, gahnite-rich rocks and quartz-garnetite). The major metallic minerals of the massive sulphides include chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and magnetite, with minor galena and gahnite. Altered rocks intimately associated with mineralization primarily consist of various amphiboles (gedrite, tremolite and hornblende), gahnite, biotite, garnet, cordierite, carbonate and rare högbomite. The Zn/Cd ratios of sphalerite (44 to 307) in deposits in the DGMT fall within the range of global volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits but overlap with sphalerite from sedimentary exhalative (Sedex) deposits. Sulphur isotope values of sulphides (δ34S = −3.3 to +6.5) suggest sulphur was largely derived from magmatic sources, and that variations in isotopic values resulting from thermochemical sulphate reduction are due to small differences in physicochemical conditions. The preferred genetic model is for the deposits to be bimodal-mafic (Gunnison) to mafic-siliciclastic VMS deposits (Cotopaxi, Cinderella-Bon Ton, DGMT).

Cowvine (Ipomoea lonchophylla J.M. Black) is a native and widely spread summer broadleaf weed in Australia. It contains glycoresins, which are toxic to livestock. However, limited information is available on seed germination ecology and growth phenology of this species. A series of experiments were conducted to determine the response of I. lonchophylla to different environmental conditions. Results showed that the primary dormancy exhibited by I. lonchophylla is due to the physical impediment of the hard seed coat. The seed germination percentage was the highest at the constant temperature of 27 C and alternating temperatures of 35/25 C. Germination of I. lonchophylla was not stimulated by light, suggesting that this species is non-photoblastic. Ipomoea lonchophylla germination was intolerant of a medium to high level of salt stress, and germination was completely inhibited at 250 mM NaCl. The emergence of I. lonchophylla was not restricted by seeding depth up to 8 cm, but only 5% emergence was recorded when seeds were planted at a 16-cm depth. The germination percentage was also drastically reduced by 90% to 100% after exposure to either 3 mo in silage, 48-h digestion in steers, or silage plus digestion treatments. The growth and reproductive phenology of I. lonchophylla was affected by emergence time. Plants that emerged in late spring (November 15) were able to produce more berries per plant than those that emerged in midsummer (January 15) in southern New South Wales. Information gained in our study concerning high soil salinity, ensiling, and digestion will help to develop more sustainable and effective integrated weed management strategies for controlling and reducing the spread of this weed.

This paper proposes a framework for comprehensive, collaborative, and community-based care (C4) for accessible mental health services in low-resource settings. Because mental health conditions have many causes, this framework includes social, public health, wellness and clinical services. It accommodates integration of stand-alone mental health programs with health and non-health community-based services. It addresses gaps in previous models including lack of community-based psychotherapeutic and social services, difficulty in addressing comorbidity of mental and physical conditions, and how workers interact with respect to referral and coordination of care. The framework is based on task-shifting of services to non-specialized workers. While the framework draws on the World Health Organization’s Mental Health Gap Action Program and other global mental health models, there are important differences. The C4 Framework delineates types of workers based on their skills. Separate workers focus on: basic psychoeducation and information sharing; community-level, evidence-based psychotherapeutic counseling; and primary medical care and more advanced, specialized mental health services for more severe or complex cases. This paper is intended for individuals, organizations and governments interested in implementing mental health services. The primary aim is to provide a framework for the provision of widely accessible mental health care and services.

The coral reefs of the Pitcairn Islands are in one of the most remote areas of the Pacific Ocean, and yet they are exposed to the impacts of anthropogenic climate change. The Pitcairn Islands Marine Protected Area was designated in 2016 and is one of the largest in the world, but the marine environment around these highly isolated islands remains poorly documented. Evidence collated here indicates that while the Pitcairn Islands' reefs have thus far been relatively sheltered from the effect of warming sea temperatures, there is substantial risk of future coral decalcification due to ocean acidification. The projected acceleration in the rate of sea level rise, and the reefs' exposure to risks from distant ocean swells and cold-water intrusions, add further uncertainty as to whether these islands and their reefs will continue to adapt and persist into the future. Coordinated action within the context of the Pitcairn Islands Marine Protected Area can help enhance the resilience of the reefs in the Pitcairn Islands. Options include management of other human pressures, control of invasive species and active reef interventions. More research, however, is needed in order to better assess what are the most appropriate and feasible options to protect these reefs.

Various global-scale proposals exist to reduce the loss of biological diversity. These include the Half-Earth and Whole-Earth visions that respectively seek to set aside half the planet for wildlife conservation or to diversify conservation practices fundamentally and change the economic systems that determine environmental harm. Here we assess these visions in the specific context of Bornean orangutans Pongo pygmaeus and their conservation. Using an expert-led process we explored three scenarios over a 10-year time frame: continuation of Current Conditions, a Half-Earth approach and a Whole-Earth approach. In addition, we examined a 100-year population recovery scenario assuming 0% offtake of Bornean orangutans. Current Conditions were predicted to result in a population c. 73% of its current size by 2032. Half-Earth was judged comparatively easy to achieve and predicted to result in an orangutan population of c. 87% of its current size by 2032. Whole-Earth was anticipated to lead to greater forest loss and ape killing, resulting in a prediction of c. 44% of the current orangutan population for 2032. Finally, under the recovery scenario, populations could be c. 148% of their current size by 2122. Although we acknowledge uncertainties in all of these predictions, we conclude that the Half-Earth and Whole-Earth visions operate along different timelines, with the implementation of Whole-Earth requiring too much time to benefit orangutans. None of the theorized proposals provided a complete solution, so drawing elements from each will be required. We provide recommendations for equitable outcomes.

Online peer support platforms have been shown to provide a supportive space that can enhance social connectedness and personal empowerment. Some studies have analysed forum messages, showing that users describe a range of advantages, and some disadvantages to their use. However, the direct examination of users’ experiences of such platforms is rare and may be particularly informative for enhancing their helpfulness. This study aimed to understand users’ experiences of the Support, Hope and Recovery Online Network (SHaRON), an online cognitive behavioural therapy-based peer support platform for adults with mild to moderate anxiety or depression. Platform users (n = 88) completed a survey on their use of different platform features, feelings about using the platform, and overall experience. Responses were analysed descriptively and using thematic analysis. Results indicated that most features were generally well used, with the exception of private messaging. Many participants described feeling well supported and finding the information and resources helpful; the majority of recent users (81%) rated it as helpful overall. However, some participants described feeling uncomfortable about posting messages, and others did not find the platform helpful and gave suggestions for improvements. Around half had not used the platform in the past 3 months, for different reasons including feeling better or forgetting about it. Some described that simply knowing it was there was helpful, even without regular use. The findings highlight what is arguably a broader range of user experiences than observed in previous studies, which may have important implications for the enhancement of SHaRON and other platforms.