Bury, JS. The influence of hereditary syphilis in the production of idiocy or dementia. Brain. 1883;6(1):44–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nahmias, AJ, Walls, KW, Stewart, JA, Herrmann, KL, Flynt, WJ, Jr. The ToRCH complex-perinatal infections associated with toxoplasma and rubella, cytomegol-[sic] and herpes simplex viruses. Pediatr Res. 1971;5:405–6.Google Scholar

Rawlinson, WD, Hall, B, Jones, CA, Jeffery, HE, Arbuckle, SM, Graf, N, et al. Viruses and other infections in stillbirth: what is the evidence and what should we be doing? Pathology. 2008;40(2):149–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Read, JS, Schleiss MR (eds) Congenital and Perinatal Infections: Oxford University Press; 2017.Google Scholar

Mets, MB, Chhabra, MS. Eye manifestations of intrauterine infections and their impact on childhood blindness. Surv Ophthalmol. 2008;53(2):95–111.Google Scholar

Shaw, CM, Alvord, EC, Jr. Subependymal germinolysis. Arch Neurol. 1974;31(6):374–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Metcalf, CJE, Ferrari, M, Graham, AL, Grenfell, BT. Understanding herd immunity. Trends Immunol. 2015;36(12):753–5.Google Scholar

Schweighardt, B, Atwood, WJ. Virus receptors in the human central nervous system. J Neurovirol. 2001;7(3):187–95.Google Scholar

Devakumar, D, Bamford, A, Ferreira, MU, Broad, J, Rosch, RE, Groce, N, et al. Infectious causes of microcephaly: epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):e1–e13.Google Scholar

Frenkel, LD, Gomez, F, Sabahi, F. The pathogenesis of microcephaly resulting from congenital infections: why is my baby’s head so small? Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2018;37(2):209–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Besnard, M, Eyrolle-Guignot, D, Guillemette-Artur, P, Lastere, S, Bost-Bezeaud, F, Marcelis, L, et al. Congenital cerebral malformations and dysfunction in fetuses and newborns following the 2013 to 2014 Zika virus epidemic in French Polynesia. Euro Surveill. 2016;21(13):30181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lowe, R, Barcellos, C, Brasil, P, Cruz, OG, Honorio, NA, Kuper, H, et al. The Zika virus epidemic in Brazil: from discovery to future implications. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(1):E96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chakraborty, S, Nazmi, A, Dutta, K, Basu, A. Neurons under viral attack: victims or warriors? Neurochem Int. 2010;56(6–7):727–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

van den Pol, AN. Viral infections in the developing and mature brain. Trends Neurosci. 2006;29(7):398–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cordeiro, CN, Tsimis, M, Burd, I. Infections and brain development. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2015;70(10):644–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Das, S, Basu, A. Viral infection and neural stem/progenitor cell’s fate: implications in brain development and neurological disorders. Neurochem Int. 2011;59(3):357–66.Google Scholar

Jiang, NM, Cowan, M, Moonah, SN, Petri, WA, Jr. The impact of systemic inflammation on neurodevelopment. Trends Mol Med. 2018;24(9):794–804.Google Scholar

Hwang, JS, Friedlander, S, Rehan, VK, Zangwill, KM. Diagnosis of congenital/perinatal infections by neonatologists: a national survey. J Perinatol. 2019;39(5):690–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Neuberger, I, Garcia, J, Meyers, ML, Feygin, T, Bulas, DI, Mirsky, DM. Imaging of congenital central nervous system infections. Pediatr Radiol. 2018;48(4):513–23.Google Scholar

McDonough, A, Lee, RV, Weinstein, JR. Microglial interferon signaling and white matter. Neurochem Res. 2017;42(9):2625–38.Google Scholar

Uyur Yalcin, E, Maras Genc, H, Kara, B. Clinical and neuroradiologic variability of Aicardi-Goutieres syndrome: Two siblings with RNASEH2 C mutation and a boy with TREX1 mutation. Turk J Pediatr. 2015;57(5):504–8.Google Scholar

Meuwissen, ME, Schot, R, Buta, S, Oudesluijs, G, Tinschert, S, Speer, SD, et al. Human USP18 deficiency underlies type 1 interferonopathy leading to severe pseudo-TORCH syndrome. J Exp Med. 2016;213(7):1163–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Aggarwal, S, Bahal, A, Dalal, A. Renal dysfunction in sibs with band like calcification with simplified gyration and polymicrogyria: Report of a new mutation and review of literature. Eur J Med Genet. 2016;59(1):5–10.Google Scholar

Cohen, MC, Karaman, I, Squier, W, Farrel, T, Whitby, EH. Recurrent pseudo-TORCH appearances of the brain presenting as “Dandy-Walker” malformation. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2012;15(1):45–9.Google Scholar

O’Driscoll, MC, Daly, SB, Urquhart, JE, Black, GC, Pilz, DT, Brockmann, K, et al. Recessive mutations in the gene encoding the tight junction protein occludin cause band-like calcification with simplified gyration and polymicrogyria. Am J Hum Genet. 2010;87(3):354–64.Google Scholar

Briggs, TA, Wolf, NI, D’Arrigo, S, Ebinger, F, Harting, I, Dobyns, WB, et al. Band-like intracranial calcification with simplified gyration and polymicrogyria: a distinct “pseudo-TORCH” phenotype. Am J Med Genet A. 2008;146A(24):3173–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Stephenson, JB. Aicardi-Goutieres syndrome (AGS). Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2008;12(5):355–8.Google Scholar

Crow, YJ, Black, DN, Ali, M, Bond, J, Jackson, AP, Lefson, M, et al. Cree encephalitis is allelic with Aicardi-Goutieres syndrome: implications for the pathogenesis of disorders of interferon alpha metabolism. J Med Genet. 2003;40(3):183–7.Google Scholar

Lee, BE, Davies, HD. Aseptic meningitis. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2007;20(3):272–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kaplan, MH, Klein, SW, McPhee, J, Harper, RG. Group B coxsackievirus infections in infants younger than three months of age: a serious childhood illness. Rev Infect Dis. 1983;5(6):1019–32.Google Scholar

Ortner, B, Huang, CW, Schmid, D, Mutz, I, Wewalka, G, Allerberger, F, et al. Epidemiology of enterovirus types causing neurological disease in Austria 1999–2007: detection of clusters of echovirus 30 and enterovirus 71 and analysis of prevalent genotypes. J Med Virol. 2009;81(2):317–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Freimuth, P, Philipson, L, Carson, SD. The coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2008;323:67–87.Google ScholarPubMed

Hauwel, M, Furon, E, Gasque, P. Molecular and cellular insights into the coxsackie-adenovirus receptor: role in cellular interactions in the stem cell niche. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2005;48(2):265–72.Google Scholar

Honda, T, Saitoh, H, Masuko, M, Katagiri-Abe, T, Tominaga, K, Kozakai, I, et al. The coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor protein as a cell adhesion molecule in the developing mouse brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 2000;77(1):19–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Miller, JA, Ding, SL, Sunkin, SM, Smith, KA, Ng, L, Szafer, A, et al. Transcriptional landscape of the prenatal human brain. Nature. 2014;508(7495):199–206.Google Scholar

Persson, A, Fan, X, Widegren, B, Englund, E. Cell type- and region-dependent coxsackie adenovirus receptor expression in the central nervous system. J Neurooncol. 2006;78(1):1–6.Google Scholar

Hunt, JC, Schneider, C, Menticoglou, S, Herath, J, Del Bigio, MR. Antenatal and postnatal diagnosis of coxsackie b4 infection: case series. AJP Rep. 2012;2(1):1–6.Google ScholarPubMed

Gauntt, CJ, Gudvangen, RJ, Brans, YW, Marlin, AE. Coxsackievirus group B antibodies in the ventricular fluid of infants with severe anatomic defects in the central nervous system. Pediatrics. 1985;76(1):64–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brown, GC, Karunas, RS. Relationship of congenital anomalies and maternal infection with selected enteroviruses. Am J Epidemiol. 1972;95(3):207–17.Google Scholar

Ruller, CM, Tabor-Godwin, JM, Van Deren, DA, Jr., Robinson, SM, Maciejewski, S, Gluhm, S, et al. Neural stem cell depletion and CNS developmental defects after enteroviral infection. Am J Pathol. 2012;180(3):1107–20.Google Scholar

Tsueng, G, Tabor-Godwin, JM, Gopal, A, Ruller, CM, Deline, S, An, N, et al. Coxsackievirus preferentially replicates and induces cytopathic effects in undifferentiated neural progenitor cells. J Virol. 2011;85(12):5718–32.Google Scholar

Batcup, G, Holt, P, Hambling, MH, Gerlis, LM, Glass, MR. Placental and fetal pathology in Coxsackie virus A9 infection: a case report. Histopathology. 1985;9(11):1227–35.Google Scholar

Erickson, LS, Hoyle, G, Abramson, J, Hester, LC, Coxsackie, Shetty A. B1 infection associated with ventriculitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(8):750–1.Google Scholar

Bissel, SJ, Winkler, CC, Deltondo, J, Wang, G, Williams, K, Wiley, CA. Coxsackievirus B4 myocarditis and meningoencephalitis in newborn twins. Neuropathology. 2014;34(5):429–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Konstantinidou, A, Anninos, H, Spanakis, N, Kotsiakis, X, Syridou, G, Tsakris, A, et al. Transplacental infection of Coxsackievirus B3 pathological findings in the fetus. J Med Virol. 2007;79(6):754–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Dommergues, M, Petitjean, J, Aubry, MC, Delezoide, AL, Narcy, F, Fallet-Bianco, C, et al. Fetal enteroviral infection with cerebral ventriculomegaly and cardiomyopathy. Fetal Diagn Ther. 1994;9(2):77–8.Google Scholar

Chen, H, Zhang, Y, Yang, E, Liu, L, Che, Y, Wang, J, et al. The effect of enterovirus 71 immunization on neuropathogenesis and protein expression profiles in the thalamus of infected rhesus neonates. Virology. 2012;432(2):417–26.Google Scholar

Gao, L, Lin, P, Liu, S, Lei, B, Chen, Q, Yu, S, et al. Pathological examinations of an enterovirus 71 infection: an autopsy case. Int J Clin Exp Pathol. 2014;7(8):5236–41.Google Scholar

Muehlenbachs, A, Bhatnagar, J, Zaki, SR. Tissue tropism, pathology and pathogenesis of enterovirus infection. J Pathol. 2015;235(2):217–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ong, KC, Wong, KT. Understanding enterovirus 71 neuropathogenesis and its impact on other neurotropic enteroviruses. Brain Pathol. 2015;25(5):614–24.Google Scholar

Yang, Y, Wang, H, Gong, E, Du, J, Zhao, X, McNutt, MA, et al. Neuropathology in 2 cases of fatal enterovirus type 71 infection from a recent epidemic in the People’s Republic of China: a histopathologic, immunohistochemical, and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction study. Hum Pathol. 2009;40(9):1288–95.Google Scholar

Vanarsdall, AL, Johnson, DC. Human cytomegalovirus entry into cells. Curr Opin Virol. 2012;2(1):37–42.Google Scholar

Jackson, SE, Mason, GM, Wills, MR. Human cytomegalovirus immunity and immune evasion. Virus Res. 2011;157(2):151–60.Google Scholar

Leruez-Ville, M, Ville, Y. Fetal cytomegalovirus infection. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2017;38:97–107.Google Scholar

Wu, K, Oberstein, A, Wang, W, Shenk, T. Role of PDGF receptor-alpha during human cytomegalovirus entry into fibroblasts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2018;115(42):E9889–E98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Berger, AA, Gil, Y, Panet, A, Weisblum, Y, Oiknine-Djian, E, Gropp, M, et al. Transition toward human cytomegalovirus susceptibility in early human embryonic stem cell-derived neural precursors. J Virol. 2015;89(21):11159–64.Google Scholar

Sinzger, C, Digel, M, Jahn, G. Cytomegalovirus cell tropism. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2008;325:63–83.Google Scholar

Kawasaki, H, Kosugi, I, Meguro, S, Iwashita, T. Pathogenesis of developmental anomalies of the central nervous system induced by congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Pathol Int. 2017;67(2):72–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Luo, MH, Schwartz, PH, Fortunato, EA. Neonatal neural progenitor cells and their neuronal and glial cell derivatives are fully permissive for human cytomegalovirus infection. J Virol. 2008;82(20):9994–10007.Google Scholar

Teissier, N, Fallet-Bianco, C, Delezoide, AL, Laquerriere, A, Marcorelles, P, Khung-Savatovsky, S, et al. Cytomegalovirus-induced brain malformations in fetuses. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2014;73(2):143–58.Google Scholar

Li, XJ, Liu, XJ, Yang, B, Fu, YR, Zhao, F, Shen, ZZ, et al. Human cytomegalovirus infection dysregulates the localization and stability of NICD1 and Jag1 in neural progenitor cells. J Virol. 2015;89(13):6792–804.Google Scholar

Haymaker, W, Girdany, BR, Stephens, J, Lillie, RD, Fetterman, GH. Cerebral involvement with advanced periventricular calcification in generalized cytomegalic inclusion disease in the newborn; a clinicopathological report of a case diagnosed during life. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1954;13(4):562–86.Google Scholar

Cheeran, MC, Lokensgard, JR, Schleiss, MR. Neuropathogenesis of congenital cytomegalovirus infection: disease mechanisms and prospects for intervention. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2009;22(1):99–126.Google Scholar

Fraser, SH, O’Keefe, RJ, Scurry, JP, Watkins, AM, Drew, JH, Chow, CW. Hydrocephalus ex vacuo and clasp thumb deformity due to congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Paediatr Child Health. 1994;30(5):450–2.Google Scholar

White, AL, Hedlund, GL, Bale, JF, Jr. Congenital cytomegalovirus infection and brain clefting. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;50(3):218–23.Google Scholar

Ceballos, R, Ch’ien, LT, Whitley, RJ, Brans, YW. Cerebellar hypoplasia in an infant with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Pediatrics. 1976;57(1):155–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Nakajima, K, Hayashi, M, Tanuma, N, Morio, T. An autopsy case of polymicrogyria and intracerebral calcification with death by intracerebral hemorrhage. Neuropathology. 2012;32(2):207–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Arun Babu, T, Soliman, Y, Mohammad, K. Unusual complication of fulminant congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Neonatal Perinatal Med. 2018;11(2):203–8.Google Scholar

Ortiz, JU, Ostermayer, E, Fischer, T, Kuschel, B, Rudelius, M, Schneider, KT. Severe fetal cytomegalovirus infection associated with cerebellar hemorrhage. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2004;23(4):402–6.Google Scholar

Perlman, JM, Argyle, C. Lethal cytomegalovirus infection in preterm infants: clinical, radiological, and neuropathological findings. Ann Neurol. 1992;31(1):64–8.Google Scholar

Teissier, N, Delezoide, AL, Mas, AE, Khung-Savatovsky, S, Bessieres, B, Nardelli, J, et al. Inner ear lesions in congenital cytomegalovirus infection of human fetuses. Acta Neuropathol. 2011;122(6):763–74.Google Scholar

Iwasenko, JM, Howard, J, Arbuckle, S, Graf, N, Hall, B, Craig, ME, et al. Human cytomegalovirus infection is detected frequently in stillbirths and is associated with fetal thrombotic vasculopathy. J Infect Dis. 2011;203(11):1526–33.Google Scholar

Gabrielli, L, Bonasoni, MP, Lazzarotto, T, Lega, S, Santini, D, Foschini, MP, et al. Histological findings in foetuses congenitally infected by cytomegalovirus. J Clin Virol. 2009;46 Suppl 4:S16–21.Google Scholar

Gabrielli, L, Bonasoni, MP, Santini, D, Piccirilli, G, Chiereghin, A, Petrisli, E, et al. Congenital cytomegalovirus infection: patterns of fetal brain damage. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18(10):E419–27.Google Scholar

Yagmur, G, Ziyade, N, Elgormus, N, Das, T, Sahin, MF, Yildirim, M, et al. Postmortem diagnosis of cytomegalovirus and accompanying other infection agents by real-time PCR in cases of sudden unexpected death in infancy (SUDI). J Forensic Leg Med. 2016;38:18–23.Google Scholar

Bale, JF, Jr., Blackman, JA, Sato, Y. Outcome in children with symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Child Neurol. 1990;5(2):131–6.Google Scholar

Bhatta, AK, Keyal, U, Liu, Y, Gellen, E. Vertical transmission of herpes simplex virus: an update. J Dtsch Dermatol Ges. 2018;16(6):685–92.Google Scholar

Brown, ZA, Selke, S, Zeh, J, Kopelman, J, Maslow, A, Ashley, RL, et al. The acquisition of herpes simplex virus during pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 1997;337(8):509–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Avgil, M, Ornoy, A. Herpes simplex virus and Epstein-Barr virus infections in pregnancy: consequences of neonatal or intrauterine infection. Reprod Toxicol. 2006;21(4):436–45.Google Scholar

Karasneh, GA, Shukla, D. Herpes simplex virus infects most cell types in vitro: clues to its success. Virol J. 2011;8:481.Google Scholar

Kopp, SJ, Banisadr, G, Glajch, K, Maurer, UE, Grunewald, K, Miller, RJ, et al. Infection of neurons and encephalitis after intracranial inoculation of herpes simplex virus requires the entry receptor nectin-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009;106(42):17916–20.Google Scholar

Connolly, SA, Jackson, JO, Jardetzky, TS, Longnecker, R. Fusing structure and function: a structural view of the herpesvirus entry machinery. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2011;9(5):369–81.Google Scholar

Edwards, RG, Longnecker, R. Herpesvirus entry mediator and ocular herpesvirus infection: more than meets the eye. J Virol. 2017;91(13):e00115–e17.Google Scholar

Guzman, G, Oh, S, Shukla, D, Engelhard, HH, Valyi-Nagy, T. Expression of entry receptor nectin-1 of herpes simplex virus 1 and/or herpes simplex virus 2 in normal and neoplastic human nervous system tissues. Acta Virol. 2006;50(1):59–66.Google ScholarPubMed

Prandovszky, E, Horvath, S, Gellert, L, Kovacs, SK, Janka, Z, Toldi, J, et al. Nectin-1 (HveC) is expressed at high levels in neural subtypes that regulate radial migration of cortical and cerebellar neurons of the developing human and murine brain. J Neurovirol. 2008;14(2):164–72.Google Scholar

Lathe, R, Haas, JG. Distribution of cellular HSV-1 receptor expression in human brain. J Neurovirol. 2017;23(3):376–84.Google Scholar

Suenaga, T, Satoh, T, Somboonthum, P, Kawaguchi, Y, Mori, Y, Arase, H. Myelin-associated glycoprotein mediates membrane fusion and entry of neurotropic herpesviruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(2):866–71.Google Scholar

Agelidis, AM, Shukla, D. Cell entry mechanisms of HSV: what we have learned in recent years. Future Virol. 2015;10(10):1145–54.Google Scholar

Salameh, S, Sheth, U, Shukla, D. Early events in herpes simplex virus lifecycle with implications for an infection of lifetime. Open Virol J. 2012;6:1–6.Google Scholar

Hutto, C, Arvin, A, Jacobs, R, Steele, R, Stagno, S, Lyrene, R, et al. Intrauterine herpes simplex virus infections. J Pediatr. 1987;110(1):97–101.Google Scholar

Florman, AL, Gershon, AA, Blackett, PR, Nahmias, AJ. Intrauterine infection with herpes simplex virus. Resultant congenital malformations. JAMA. 1973;225(2):129–32.Google Scholar

Chalhub, EG, Baenziger, J, Feigen, RD, Middlekamp, JN, Shackelford, GD. Congenital herpes simplex type II infection with extensive hepatic calcification, bone lesions and cataracts: complete postmortem examination. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1977;19(4):527–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Reynolds, JD, Griebel, M, Mallory, S, Steele, R. Congenital herpes simplex retinitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;102(1):33–6.Google Scholar

Su, C, Zhan, G, Zheng, C. Evasion of host antiviral innate immunity by HSV-1, an update. Virol J. 2016;13:38.Google Scholar

Jay, V, Becker, LE, Blaser, S, Hwang, P, Hoffman, HJ, Humphreys, R, et al. Pathology of chronic herpes infection associated with seizure disorder: a report of two cases with tissue detection of herpes simplex virus 1 by the polymerase chain reaction. Pediatr Pathol Lab Med. 1995;15(1):131–46.Google Scholar

Mansour, AM, Nichols, MM. Congenital diffuse necrotizing herpetic retinitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1993;231(2):95–8.Google Scholar

Lee, A, Bar-Zeev, N, Walker, SP, Permezel, M. In utero herpes simplex encephalitis. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;102(5 Pt 2):1197–9.Google Scholar

Suh, YL, Kim, H, Chi, JG, Byun, HR, Lee, K. Disseminated neonatal herpes simplex virus infection with necrotizing encephalitis–an autopsy case. J Korean Med Sci. 1987;2(2):123–7.Google Scholar

Capretti, MG, Marsico, C, Lazzarotto, T, Gabrielli, L, Bagni, A, De Angelis, M, et al. Herpes simplex virus 1 infection: misleading findings in an infant with disseminated disease. New Microbiol. 2013;36(3):307–13.Google Scholar

Schutz, PW, Fauth, CT, Al-Rawahi, GN, Pugash, D, White, VA, Stockler, S, et al. Granulomatous herpes simplex encephalitis in an infant with multicystic encephalopathy: a distinct clinicopathologic entity? Pediatr Neurol. 2014;50(4):392–6.Google Scholar

Miyahara, H, Miyakawa, K, Nishida, H, Yano, S, Sonoda, T, Suenobu, SI, et al. Unique cell tropism of HHV-6B in an infantile autopsy case of primary HHV-6B encephalitis. Neuropathology. 2018;38:400–6.Google Scholar

Lynch, NG, Johnson, AK. Congenital HIV: prevention of maternal to child transmission. Adv Neonatal Care. 2018;18(5):330–40.Google Scholar

Branson, BM, Handsfield, HH, Lampe, MA, Janssen, RS, Taylor, AW, Lyss, SB, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55(RR-14):1–17.Google Scholar

Mitchell, CD. HIV-1 encephalopathy among perinatally infected children: Neuropathogenesis and response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2006;12(3):216–22.Google Scholar

Chen, NC, Partridge, AT, Sell, C, Torres, C, Martin-Garcia, J. Fate of microglia during HIV-1 infection: From activation to senescence? Glia. 2017;65(3):431–46.Google Scholar

Cosenza, MA, Zhao, ML, Si, Q, Lee, SC. Human brain parenchymal microglia express CD14 and CD45 and are productively infected by HIV-1 in HIV-1 encephalitis. Brain Pathol. 2002;12(4):442–55.Google Scholar

Keohane, C, Gray, F. Central nervous system pathology in children with AIDS. A review. Ir J Med Sci. 1991;160(9):277–81.Google Scholar

Johann-Liang, R, Lin, K, Cervia, J, Stavola, J, Noel, G. Neuroimaging findings in children perinatally infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17(8):753–4.Google Scholar

Dickson, DW, Belman, AL, Park, YD, Wiley, C, Horoupian, DS, Llena, J, et al. Central nervous system pathology in pediatric AIDS: an autopsy study. APMIS Suppl. 1989;8:40–57.Google Scholar

Morgello, S. HIV neuropathology. Handb Clin Neurol. 2018;152:3–19.Google Scholar

Krist, AH, Crawford-Faucher, A. Management of newborns exposed to maternal HIV infection. Am Fam Physician. 2002;65(10):2049–56.Google Scholar

Msellati, P, Lepage, P, Hitimana, DG, Van Goethem, C, Van de Perre, P, Dabis, F. Neurodevelopmental testing of children born to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seropositive and seronegative mothers: a prospective cohort study in Kigali, Rwanda. Pediatrics. 1993;92(6):843–8.Google Scholar

Musetti, L, Albizzati, A, Grioni, A, Rossetti, M, Saccani, M, Musetti, C. Autistic disorder associated with congenital HIV infection. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;2(4):221–5.Google Scholar

Tardieu, M, Tejiokem, M, Nguefack, S. Virus-induced lesions and the fetal brain: examples of the transmission of HIV-1 and CMV from mother to offspring. Handb Clin Neurol. 2013;112:1103–8.Google Scholar

Kozlowski, PB, Brudkowska, J, Kraszpulski, M, Sersen, EA, Wrzolek, MA, Anzil, AP, et al. Microencephaly in children congenitally infected with human immunodeficiency virus–a gross-anatomical morphometric study. Acta Neuropathol. 1997;93(2):136–45.Google Scholar

Rossman, JS, Lamb, RA. Influenza virus assembly and budding. Virology. 2011;411(2):229–36.Google Scholar

Byrd-Leotis, L, Cummings, RD, Steinhauer, DA. The interplay between the host receptor and influenza virus hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18(7):E1541.Google Scholar

Kim, M, Yu, JE, Lee, JH, Chang, BJ, Song, CS, Lee, B, et al. Comparative analyses of influenza virus receptor distribution in the human and mouse brains. J Chem Neuroanat. 2013;52:49–57.Google Scholar

Demicheli, V, Jefferson, T, Ferroni, E, Rivetti, A, Di Pietrantonj, C. Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;2:CD001269.Google ScholarPubMed

Phadke, VK, Omer, SB. Maternal vaccination for the prevention of influenza: current status and hopes for the future. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2016;15(10):1255–80.Google Scholar

Zhang, C, Wang, X, Liu, D, Zhang, L, Sun, X. A systematic review and meta-analysis of fetal outcomes following the administration of influenza A/H1N1 vaccination during pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2018;141(2):141–50.Google Scholar

van Riel, D, Mittrucker, HW, Engels, G, Klingel, K, Markert, UR, Gabriel, G. Influenza pathogenicity during pregnancy in women and animal models. Semin Immunopathol. 2016;38(6):719–26.Google Scholar

Lussier, G, Boudreault, A, Pavilanis, V, DiFranco, E. Lesions of the central nervous system induced in nonhuman primates by live influenza viruses. Can J Comp Med. 1974;38(4):398–405.Google Scholar

Zinserling, AV, Aksenov, OA, Melnikova, VF, Zinserling, VA. Extrapulmonary lesions in influenza. Tohoku J Exp Med. 1983;140(3):259–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Luteijn, JM, Brown, MJ, Dolk, H. Influenza and congenital anomalies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod. 2014;29(4):809–23.Google Scholar

Laurence, KM, Carter, CO, David, PA. Major central nervous system malformations in South Wales. II. Pregnancy factors, seasonal variation, and social class effects. Br J Prev Soc Med. 1968;22(4):212–22.Google Scholar

Krous, HF, Altshuler, G, London, WT, Palmer, AE, Fucillo, DA, Sever, JL. Congenital hydrocephalus produced by attenuated influenza A virus vaccine in Rhesus monkeys. Am J Pathol. 1978;92(1):317–20.Google Scholar

London, WT, Fuccillo, DA, Sever, JL, Kent, SG. Influenza virus as a teratogen in rhesus monkeys. Nature. 1975;255(5508):483–4.Google Scholar

Peng, BH, Yun, N, Chumakova, O, Zacks, M, Campbell, G, Smith, J, et al. Neuropathology of H5N1 virus infection in ferrets. Vet Microbiol. 2012;156(3–4):294–304.Google Scholar

Henle, G, Henle, W. Studies on the toxicity of influenza viruses: I. The effect of intracerebral injection of influenza viruses. J Exp Med. 1946;84(6):623–37.Google Scholar

Mims, CA. An analysis of the toxicity for mice of influenza virus. I. Intracerebral toxicity. Br J Exp Pathol. 1960;41:586–92.Google Scholar

Johnson, RT, Johnson, KP. Hydrocephalus as a sequela of experimental myxovirus infections. Exp Molec Pathol. 1969;10(1):68–80.Google Scholar

Johnson, KP, Johnson, RT. Granular ependymitis. Occurrence in myxovirus infected rodents and prevalence in man. Am J Pathol. 1972;67(3):511–26.Google Scholar

Conover, PT, Roessmann, U. Malformational complex in an infant with intrauterine influenza viral infection. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990;114(5):535–8.Google Scholar

Mak, GCK, Kwan, MY, Mok, CKP, Lo, JYC, Peiris, M, Leung, CW. Influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in a child with encephalitis complicated by obstructive hydrocephalus. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66(1):136–9.Google Scholar

Yamada, M, Bingham, J, Payne, J, Rookes, J, Lowther, S, Haining, J, et al. Multiple routes of invasion of wild-type Clade 1 highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus into the central nervous system (CNS) after intranasal exposure in ferrets. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;124(4):505–16.Google Scholar

Milhorat, TH, Kotzen, RM, Anzil, AP. Stenosis of central canal of spinal cord in man: incidence and pathological findings in 232 autopsy cases. J Neurosurg. 1994;80(4):716–22.Google Scholar

Cao, W, Henry, MD, Borrow, P, Yamada, H, Elder, JH, Ravkov, EV, et al. Identification of alpha-dystroglycan as a receptor for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and Lassa fever virus. Science. 1998;282(5396):2079–81.Google Scholar

Rojek, JM, Perez, M, Kunz, S. Cellular entry of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. J Virol. 2008;82(3):1505–17.Google Scholar

Waite, A, Brown, SC, Blake, DJ. The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex in brain development and disease. Trends Neurosci. 2012;35(8):487–96.Google Scholar

Sullivan, BM, Welch, MJ, Lemke, G, Oldstone, MB. Is the TAM receptor Axl a receptor for lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus? J Virol. 2013;87(7):4071–4.Google Scholar

Bonthius, DJ. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: an underrecognized cause of neurologic disease in the fetus, child, and adult. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2012;19(3):89–95.Google Scholar

Barton, LL, Mets, MB. Congenital lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection: decade of rediscovery. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(3):370–4.Google Scholar

Anderson, JL, Levy, PT, Leonard, KB, Smyser, CD, Tychsen, L, Cole, FS. Congenital lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: when to consider the diagnosis. J Child Neurol. 2014;29(6):837–42.Google Scholar

Bonthius, DJ, Wright, R, Tseng, B, Barton, L, Marco, E, Karacay, B, et al. Congenital lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection: spectrum of disease. Ann Neurol. 2007;62(4):347–55.Google Scholar

Lipkin, WI, Battenberg, EL, Bloom, FE, Oldstone, MB. Viral infection of neurons can depress neurotransmitter mRNA levels without histologic injury. Brain Res. 1988;451(1–2):333–9.Google Scholar

Bonthius, DJ, Nichols, B, Harb, H, Mahoney, J, Karacay, B. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection of the developing brain: critical role of host age. Ann Neurol. 2007;62(4):356–74.Google Scholar

Enders, G, Varho-Gobel, M, Lohler, J, Terletskaia-Ladwig, E, Eggers, M. Congenital lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection: an underdiagnosed disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18(7):652–5.Google Scholar

Sheinbergas, MM. Hydrocephalus due to prenatal infection with the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Infection. 1976;4(4):185–91.Google Scholar

Sheinbergas, MM, Ptashekas, RS, Pikelite, RL, Iu P, Tuliavichene, Sverdlov, Iu M. [Clinical and pathomorphologic findings in hydrocephalus caused by prenatal infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus] (in Russian). Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 1977;77(7):1004–7.Google Scholar

Isumi, H, Nunoue, T, Nishida, A, Takashima, S. Fetal brain infection with human parvovirus B19. Pediatr Neurol. 1999;21(3):661–3.Google Scholar

von Kietzell, K, Pozzuto, T, Heilbronn, R, Grossl, T, Fechner, H, Weger, S. Antibody-mediated enhancement of parvovirus B19 uptake into endothelial cells mediated by a receptor for complement factor C1q. J Virol. 2014;88(14):8102–15.Google Scholar

Lassen, J, Bager, P, Wohlfahrt, J, Bottiger, B, Parvovirus, Melbye M. B19 infection in pregnancy and subsequent morbidity and mortality in offspring. Int J Epidemiol. 2013;42(4):1070–6.Google Scholar

Crane, J, Mundle, W, Boucoiran, I, Maternal Fetal, Medicine C. Parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2014;36(12):1107–16.Google Scholar

Bascietto, F, Liberati, M, Murgano, D, Buca, D, Iacovelli, A, Flacco, ME, et al. Outcome of fetuses with congenital parvovirus B19 infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2018;52(5):569–76.Google Scholar

Ornoy, A, Parvovirus, Ergaz Z. B19 infection during pregnancy and risks to the fetus. Birth Defects Res. 2017;109(5):311–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Sanapo, L, Wien, M, Whitehead, MT, Blask, A, Gallagher, M, DeBiasi, RL, et al. Fetal anemia, cerebellar hemorrhage and hypoplasia associated with congenital parvovirus infection. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2017;30(16):1887–90.Google Scholar

Glenn, OA, Bianco, K, Barkovich, AJ, Callen, PW, Parer, JT. Fetal cerebellar hemorrhage in parvovirus-associated non-immune hydrops fetalis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2007;20(10):769–72.Google Scholar

Katz, VL, McCoy, MC, Kuller, JA, Hansen, WF. An association between fetal parvovirus B19 infection and fetal anomalies: a report of two cases. Am J Perinatol. 1996;13(1):43–5.Google Scholar

Courtier, J, Schauer, GM, Parer, JT, Regenstein, AC, Callen, PW, Glenn, OA. Polymicrogyria in a fetus with human parvovirus B19 infection: a case with radiologic-pathologic correlation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2012;40(5):604–6.Google Scholar

Pistorius, LR, Smal, J, de Haan, TR, Page-Christiaens, GC, Verboon-Maciolek, M, Oepkes, D, et al. Disturbance of cerebral neuronal migration following congenital parvovirus B19 infection. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2008;24(4):491–4.Google Scholar

Schulert, GS, Walsh, WF, Weitkamp, JH. Polymicrogyria and congenital parvovirus B19 infection. AJP Rep. 2011;1(2):105–10.Google Scholar

De Haan, TR, Van Wezel-Meijler, G, Beersma, MF, Von Lindern, JS, Van Duinen, SG, Walther, FJ. Fetal stroke and congenital parvovirus B19 infection complicated by activated protein C resistance. Acta Paediatr. 2006;95(7):863–7.Google Scholar

Salimans, MM, van de Rijke, FM, Raap, AK, van Elsacker-Niele, AM. Detection of parvovirus B19 DNA in fetal tissues by in situ hybridisation and polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Pathol. 1989;42(5):525–30.Google Scholar

Barah, F, Vallely, PJ, Chiswick, ML, Cleator, GM, Kerr, JR. Association of human parvovirus B19 infection with acute meningoencephalitis. Lancet. 2001;358(9283):729–30.Google Scholar

Ganaie, SS, Qiu, J. Recent advances in replication and infection of human parvovirus B19. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2018;8:166.Google Scholar

Shen, L, Chen, CY, Huang, D, Wang, R, Zhang, M, Qian, L, et al. Pathogenic events in a nonhuman primate model of oral poliovirus infection leading to paralytic poliomyelitis. J Virol. 2017;91(14):e02310–16.Google Scholar

Mendelsohn, CL, Wimmer, E, Racaniello, VR. Cellular receptor for poliovirus: molecular cloning, nucleotide sequence, and expression of a new member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Cell. 1989;56(5):855–65.Google Scholar

Leon-Monzon, ME, Illa, I, Dalakas, MC. Expression of poliovirus receptor in human spinal cord and muscle. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1995;753:48–57.Google Scholar

Gromeier, M, Solecki, D, Patel, DD, Wimmer, E. Expression of the human poliovirus receptor/CD155 gene during development of the central nervous system: implications for the pathogenesis of poliomyelitis. Virology. 2000;273(2):248–57.Google Scholar

Rindge, ME. Poliomyelitis in pregnancy; a report of 79 cases in Connecticut. N Engl J Med. 1957;256(7):281–5.Google Scholar

Siegel, M, Greenberg, M. Poliomyelitis in pregnancy: effect on fetus and newborn infant. J Pediatr. 1956;49(3):280–8.Google Scholar

Bates, T. Poliomyelitis in pregnancy, fetus, and newborn. AMA Am J Dis Child. 1955;90(2):189–95.Google Scholar

Carter, HM. Congenital poliomyelitis; report of a case. Obstet Gynecol. 1956;8(3):373–4.Google Scholar

Schaeffer, M, Fox, MJ, Pi, CP. Intrauterine poliomyelitis infection: report of a case. J Am Med Assoc. 1954;155(3):248–50.Google Scholar

Elliott, GB, McAllister, JE. Fetal poliomyelitis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1956;72(4):896–902.Google Scholar

Wyatt, HV. Poliomyelitis in the fetus and the newborn. A comment on the new understanding of the pathogenesis. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1979;18(1):33–8.Google Scholar

Otsuki, N, Sakata, M, Saito, K, Okamoto, K, Mori, Y, Hanada, K, et al. Both sphingomyelin and cholesterol in the host cell membrane are essential for rubella virus entry. J Virol. 2018;92(1):e01130–17.Google Scholar

Trinh, QD, Pham, NTK, Takada, K, Komine-Aizawa, S, Hayakawa, S. Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-independent rubella infection of keratinocytes and resistance of first-trimester trophoblast cells to rubella virus in vitro. Viruses. 2018;10(1):E23.Google Scholar

Cong, H, Jiang, Y, Tien, P. Identification of the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein as a cellular receptor for rubella virus. J Virol. 2011;85(21):11038–47.Google Scholar

Conde, C, Martinez, M, Ballabriga, A. Some chemical aspects of human brain development. I. Neutral glycosphingolipids, sulfatides, and sphingomyelin. Pediatr Res. 1974;8(2):89–92.Google Scholar

Brody, BA, Kinney, HC, Kloman, AS, Gilles, FH. Sequence of central nervous system myelination in human infancy. I. An autopsy study of myelination. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1987;46:283–301.Google Scholar

Monif, GR, Sever, JL, Schiff, GM, Traub, RG. Isolation of rubella virus from products of conception. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1965;91:1143–6.Google Scholar

Desmond, MM, Wilson, GS, Melnick, JL, Singer, DB, Zion, TE, Rudolph, AJ, et al. Congenital rubella encephalitis. Course and early sequelae. J Pediatr. 1967;71(3):311–31.Google Scholar

Peters, ER, Davis, RL. Congenital rubella syndrome. Cerebral mineralizations and subperiosteal new bone formation as expressions of this disorder. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1966;5(12):743–6.Google Scholar

Rorke, LB, Spiro, AJ. Cerebral lesions associated with congenital rubella syndrome. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1967;26(1):115–7.Google Scholar

Rorke, LB, Spiro, AJ. Cerebral lesions in congenital rubella syndrome. J Pediatr. 1967;70(2):243–55.Google Scholar

Rorke, LB. Nervous system lesions in the congenital rubella syndrome. Arch Otolaryngol. 1973;98(4):249–51.Google Scholar

Stadlan, EM, Sung, JH. Congenital rubella encephalopathy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1967;26(1):115.Google Scholar

Esterly, JR, Oppenheimer, EH. Vascular lesions in infants with congenital rubella. Circulation. 1967;36(4):544–54.Google Scholar

Menser, MA, Reye, RD. The pathology of congenital rubella. Pathology. 1974;6(3):215–22.Google Scholar

Singer, DB, Rudolph, AJ, Rosenberg, HS, Rawls, WE, Boniuk, M. Pathology of the congenital rubella syndrome. J Pediatr. 1967;71(5):665–75.Google Scholar

Kemper, TL, Lecours, AR, Gates, MJ, Yakovlev, PI. Retardation of the myelo- and cytoarchitectonic maturation of the brain in the congenital rubella syndrome. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. 1973;51:23–62.Google Scholar

Cluver, C, Meyer, R, Odendaal, H, Geerts, L. Congenital rubella with agenesis of the inferior cerebellar vermis and total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2013;42(2):235–7.Google Scholar

Sarwar, M, Azar-Kia, B, Schechter, MM, Valsamis, M, Batnitzky, S. Aqueductal occlusion in the congenital rubella syndrome. Neurology. 1974;24(2):198–201.Google Scholar

Townsend, JJ, Baringer, JR, Wolinsky, JS, Malamud, N, Mednick, JP, Panitch, HS, et al. Progressive rubella panencephalitis. Late onset after congenital rubella. N Engl J Med. 1975;292(19):990–3.Google Scholar

Townsend, JJ, Stroop, WG, Baringer, JR, Wolinsky, JS, McKerrow, JH, Berg, BO. Neuropathology of progressive rubella panencephalitis after childhood rubella. Neurology. 1982;32(2):185–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Webster, WS. Teratogen update: congenital rubella. Teratology. 1998;58(1):13–23.Google Scholar

Rorke, LB, Fabiyi, A, Elizan, TS, Sever, JL. Experimental cerebrovascular lesions in congenital and neonatal rubella-virus infections of ferrets. Lancet. 1968;2(7560):153–4.Google ScholarPubMed

Perelygina, L, Zheng, Q, Metcalfe, M, Icenogle, J. Persistent infection of human fetal endothelial cells with rubella virus. PLoS One. 2013;8(8):e73014.Google Scholar

Lazar, M, Perelygina, L, Martines, R, Greer, P, Paddock, CD, Peltecu, G, et al. Immunolocalization and distribution of rubella antigen in fatal congenital rubella syndrome. EBioMedicine. 2016;3:86–92.Google Scholar

Li, Q, Ali, MA, Cohen, JI. Insulin degrading enzyme is a cellular receptor mediating varicella-zoster virus infection and cell-to-cell spread. Cell. 2006;127(2):305–16.Google Scholar

Jacquet, A, Haumont, M, Chellun, D, Massaer, M, Tufaro, F, Bollen, A, et al. The varicella zoster virus glycoprotein B (gB) plays a role in virus binding to cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Virus Res. 1998;53(2):197–207.Google Scholar

Zhu, Z, Gershon, MD, Ambron, R, Gabel, C, Gershon, AA. Infection of cells by varicella zoster virus: inhibition of viral entry by mannose 6-phosphate and heparin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92(8):3546–50.Google Scholar

Suenaga, T, Matsumoto, M, Arisawa, F, Kohyama, M, Hirayasu, K, Mori, Y, et al. Sialic acids on varicella-zoster virus glycoprotein B are required for cell-cell fusion. J Biol Chem. 2015;290(32):19833–43.Google Scholar

Heldwein, EE, Krummenacher, C. Entry of herpesviruses into mammalian cells. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2008;65(11):1653–68.Google Scholar

Oliver, SL, Yang, E, Arvin, AM. Varicella-zoster virus glycoproteins: entry, replication, and pathogenesis. Curr Clin Microbiol Rep. 2016;3(4):204–15.Google Scholar

Markus, A, Grigoryan, S, Sloutskin, A, Yee, MB, Zhu, H, Yang, IH, et al. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection of neurons derived from human embryonic stem cells: direct demonstration of axonal infection, transport of VZV, and productive neuronal infection. J Virol. 2011;85(13):6220–33.Google Scholar

Enders, G, Miller, E, Cradock-Watson, J, Bolley, I, Ridehalgh, M. Consequences of varicella and herpes zoster in pregnancy: prospective study of 1739 cases. Lancet. 1994;343(8912):1548–51.Google Scholar

Harding, B, Baumer, JA. Congenital varicella-zoster. A serologically proven case with necrotizing encephalitis and malformation. Acta Neuropathol. 1988;76(3):311–5.Google Scholar

Bruder, E, Ersch, J, Hebisch, G, Ehrbar, T, Klimkait, T, Stallmach, T. Fetal varicella syndrome: disruption of neural development and persistent inflammation of non-neural tissues. Virchows Arch. 2000;437(4):440–4.Google Scholar

Cooper, C, Wojtulewicz, J, Ratnamohan, VM, Arbuckle, S. Congenital varicella syndrome diagnosed by polymerase chain reaction–scarring of the spinal cord, not the skin. J Paediatr Child Health. 2000;36(2):186–8.Google Scholar

Essex-Cater, A, Heggarty, H. Fatal congenital varicella syndrome. J Infect. 1983;7(1):77–8.Google Scholar

Magliocco, AM, Demetrick, DJ, Sarnat, HB, Hwang, WS. Varicella embryopathy. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1992;116(2):181–6.Google Scholar

Scheffer, IE, Baraitser, M, Brett, EM. Severe microcephaly associated with congenital varicella infection. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33(10):916–20.Google Scholar

Higa, K, Dan, K, Manabe, H. Varicella-zoster virus infections during pregnancy: hypothesis concerning the mechanisms of congenital malformations. Obstet Gynecol. 1987;69(2):214–22.Google Scholar

Nikkels, AF, Delbecque, K, Pierard, GE, Wienkotter, B, Schalasta, G, Enders, M. Distribution of varicella-zoster virus DNA and gene products in tissues of a first-trimester varicella-infected fetus. J Infect Dis. 2005;191(4):540–5.Google Scholar

Jones, D, Neff, CP, Palmer, BE, Stenmark, K, Nagel, MA. Varicella zoster virus-infected cerebrovascular cells produce a proinflammatory environment. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2017;4(5):e382.Google Scholar

Gilden, D, Mahalingam, R, Nagel, MA, Pugazhenthi, S, Cohrs, RJ. Review: The neurobiology of varicella zoster virus infection. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2011;37(5):441–63.Google Scholar

Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, BK, Amlie-Lefond, C, Gilden, DH. The patterns of varicella zoster virus encephalitis. Hum Pathol. 1996;27(9):927–38.Google Scholar

Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, BK, Gilden, DH. Varicella-zoster virus infections of the nervous system: clinical and pathologic correlates. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2001;125(6):770–80.Google Scholar

Javed, F, Manzoor, KN, Ali, M, Haq, IU, Khan, AA, Zaib, A, et al. Zika virus: what we need to know? J Basic Microbiol. 2018;58(1):3–16.Google Scholar

Dick, GW. Zika virus. II. Pathogenicity and physical properties. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1952;46(5):521–34.Google Scholar

Araujo, AQ, Silva, MT, Araujo, AP. Zika virus-associated neurological disorders: a review. Brain. 2016;139(Pt 8):2122–30.Google Scholar

Philip, C, Novick, CG, Novick, LF. Local transmission of Zika virus in Miami-Dade County: The Florida Department of Health rises to the challenge. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2019;25(3):277–87.Google Scholar

Mier-y-Teran-Romero, L, Delorey, MJ, Sejvar, JJ, Johansson, MA. Guillain-Barre syndrome risk among individuals infected with Zika virus: a multi-country assessment. BMC Med. 2018;16(1):67.Google Scholar

Rasmussen, SA, Jamieson, DJ, Honein, MA, Petersen, LR. Zika virus and birth defects–reviewing the evidence for causality. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(20):1981–897.Google Scholar

Rodo, C, Suy, A, Sulleiro, E, Soriano-Arandes, A, Maiz, N, Garcia-Ruiz, I, et al. Pregnancy outcomes after maternal Zika virus infection in a non-endemic region: prospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019;25(5):633 e5–e9.Google Scholar

Brasil, P, Pereira, JP, Jr., Moreira, ME, Ribeiro Nogueira, RM, Damasceno, L, Wakimoto, M, et al. Zika virus infection in pregnant women in Rio de Janeiro. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(24):2321–34.Google Scholar

Honein, MA, Dawson, AL, Petersen, EE, Jones, AM, Lee, EH, Yazdy, MM, et al. Birth defects among fetuses and infants of US women with evidence of possible Zika virus infection during pregnancy. JAMA. 2017;317(1):59–68.Google Scholar

Lima, GP, Rozenbaum, D, Pimentel, C, Frota, ACC, Vivacqua, D, Machado, ES, et al. Factors associated with the development of Congenital Zika Syndrome: a case-control study. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):277.Google Scholar

Aragao, MFVV, van der Linden, V, Petribu, NC, Valenca, MM, Parizel, PM, de Mello, RJV. Congenital Zika syndrome: the main cause of death and correspondence between brain CT and postmortem histological section findings from the same individuals. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2019;28(1):29–33.Google Scholar

Cugola, FR, Fernandes, IR, Russo, FB, Freitas, BC, Dias, JL, Guimaraes, KP, et al. The Brazilian Zika virus strain causes birth defects in experimental models. Nature. 2016;534(7606):267–71.Google Scholar

Gurung, S, Reuter, N, Preno, A, Dubaut, J, Nadeau, H, Hyatt, K, et al. Zika virus infection at mid-gestation results in fetal cerebral cortical injury and fetal death in the olive baboon. PLoS Pathog. 2019;15(1):e1007507.Google Scholar

Hirsch, AJ, Roberts, VHJ, Grigsby, PL, Haese, N, Schabel, MC, Wang, X, et al. Zika virus infection in pregnant rhesus macaques causes placental dysfunction and immunopathology. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):263.Google Scholar

Adams Waldorf, KM, Stencel-Baerenwald, JE, Kapur, RP, Studholme, C, Boldenow, E, Vornhagen, J, et al. Fetal brain lesions after subcutaneous inoculation of Zika virus in a pregnant nonhuman primate. Nat Med. 2016;22(11):1256–9.Google Scholar

Adams Waldorf, KM, Nelson, BR, Stencel-Baerenwald, JE, Studholme, C, Kapur, RP, Armistead, B, et al. Congenital Zika virus infection as a silent pathology with loss of neurogenic output in the fetal brain. Nat Med. 2018;24(3):368–74.Google Scholar

Bayless, NL, Greenberg, RS, Swigut, T, Wysocka, J, Blish, CA. Zika virus infection induces cranial neural crest cells to produce cytokines at levels detrimental for neurogenesis. Cell Host Microbe. 2016;20(4):423–8.Google Scholar

Lin, MY, Wang, YL, Wu, WL, Wolseley, V, Tsai, MT, Radic, V, et al. Zika virus infects intermediate progenitor cells and post-mitotic committed neurons in human fetal brain tissues. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):14883.Google Scholar

Meertens, L, Labeau, A, Dejarnac, O, Cipriani, S, Sinigaglia, L, Bonnet-Madin, L, et al. Axl mediates Zika virus entry in human glial cells and modulates innate immune responses. Cell Rep. 2017;18(2):324–33.Google Scholar

Nowakowski, TJ, Pollen, AA, Di Lullo, E, Sandoval-Espinosa, C, Bershteyn, M, Kriegstein, AR. Expression analysis highlights AXL as a candidate Zika virus entry receptor in neural stem cells. Cell Stem Cell. 2016;18(5):591–6.Google Scholar

Wells, MF, Salick, MR, Wiskow, O, Ho, DJ, Worringer, KA, Ihry, RJ, et al. Genetic ablation of AXL does not protect human neural progenitor cells and cerebral organoids from Zika virus infection. Cell Stem Cell. 2016;19(6):703–8.Google Scholar

Agrelli, A, de Moura, RR, Crovella, S, Brandao, LAC. ZIKA virus entry mechanisms in human cells. Infect Genet Evol. 2019;69:22–9.Google Scholar

Rinkenberger, N, Schoggins, JW. Comparative analysis of viral entry for Asian and African lineages of Zika virus. Virology. 2019;533:59–67.Google Scholar

Gao, H, Lin, Y, He, J, Zhou, S, Liang, M, Huang, C, et al. Role of heparan sulfate in the Zika virus entry, replication, and cell death. Virology. 2019;529:91–100.Google Scholar

Tan, CW, Huan Hor, CH, Kwek, SS, Tee, HK, Sam, IC, Goh, ELK, et al. Cell surface alpha2,3-linked sialic acid facilitates Zika virus internalization. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2019;8(1):426–37.Google Scholar

Ferreira, RO, Garcez, PP. Dissecting the toxic effects of Zika virus proteins on neural progenitor cells. Neuron. 2019;101(6):989–91.Google Scholar

Azevedo, RSS, Araujo, MT, Oliveira, CS, Filho, AJM, Nunes, BTD, Henriques, DF, et al. Zika Virus epidemic in Brazil. II. Post-mortem analyses of neonates with microcephaly, stillbirths, and miscarriage. J Clin Med. 2018;7(12):E496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Beaufrere, A, Bessieres, B, Bonniere, M, Driessen, M, Alfano, C, Couderc, T, et al. A clinical and histopathological study of malformations observed in fetuses infected by the Zika virus. Brain Pathol. 2019;29(1):114–25.Google Scholar

de Noronha, L, Zanluca, C, Azevedo, ML, Luz, KG, Santos, CN. Zika virus damages the human placental barrier and presents marked fetal neurotropism. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2016;111(5):287–93.Google Scholar

Martines, RB, Bhatnagar, J, de Oliveira Ramos, AM, Davi, HP, Iglezias, SD, Kanamura, CT, et al. Pathology of congenital Zika syndrome in Brazil: a case series. Lancet. 2016;388(10047):898–904.Google Scholar

Chimelli, L, Melo, AS, Avvad-Portari, E, Wiley, CA, Camacho, AH, Lopes, VS, et al. The spectrum of neuropathological changes associated with congenital Zika virus infection. Acta Neuropathol. 2017;133(6):983–99.Google Scholar

Chimelli, L, Moura Pone, S, Avvad-Portari, E, Farias Meira Vasconcelos, Z, Araujo Zin, A, Prado Cunha, D, et al. Persistence of Zika virus after birth: clinical, virological, neuroimaging, and neuropathological documentation in a 5-month infant with congenital Zika syndrome. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2018;77(3):193–8.Google Scholar

Peeling, RW, Mabey, D, Kamb, ML, Chen, XS, Radolf, JD, Benzaken, AS. Syphilis. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;3:17073.Google Scholar

Hollier, LM, Harstad, TW, Sanchez, PJ, Twickler, DM, Wendel, GD, Jr. Fetal syphilis: clinical and laboratory characteristics. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;97(6):947–53.Google Scholar

Quist, EE, Repesh, LA, Zeleznikar, R, Fitzgerald, TJ. Interaction of Treponema pallidum with isolated rabbit capillary tissues. Br J Vener Dis. 1983;59(1):11–20.Google Scholar

Houston, S, Taylor, JS, Denchev, Y, Hof, R, Zuerner, RL, Cameron, CE. Conservation of the host-interacting proteins Tp0750 and pallilysin among treponemes and restriction of proteolytic capacity to Treponema pallidum. Infect Immun. 2015;83(11):4204–16.Google Scholar

Parker, ML, Houston, S, Petrosova, H, Lithgow, KV, Hof, R, Wetherell, C, et al. The structure of Treponema pallidum Tp0751 (pallilysin) reveals a non-canonical lipocalin fold that mediates adhesion to extracellular matrix components and interactions with host cells. PLoS Pathog. 2016;12(9):e1005919.Google Scholar

Wicher, K, Abbruscato, F, Wicher, V, Baughn, R, Noordhoek, GT. Target organs of infection in guinea pigs with acquired congenital syphilis. Infect Immun. 1996;64(8):3174–9.Google Scholar

Froberg, MK, Fitzgerald, TJ, Hamilton, TR, Hamilton, B, Zarabi, M. Pathology of congenital syphilis in rabbits. Infect Immun. 1993;61(11):4743–9.Google Scholar

Hollier, LM, Cox, SM. Syphilis. Semin Perinatol. 1998;22(4):323–31.Google Scholar

Kittipornpechdee, N, Hanamorn-roongruang, S, Lekmak, D, Treetipsatit, J. Fetal and placental pathology in congenital syphilis: a comprehensive study in perinatal autopsy. Fetal Pediatr Pathol. 2018;37(4):231–42.Google Scholar

Benzick, AE, Wirthwein, DP, Weinberg, A, Wendel, GD, Jr., Alsaadi, R, Leos, NK, et al. Pituitary gland gumma in congenital syphilis after failed maternal treatment: a case report. Pediatrics. 1999;104(1):e4.Google Scholar

Guarner, J, Greer, PW, Bartlett, J, Ferebee, T, Fears, M, Pope, V, et al. Congenital syphilis in a newborn: an immunopathologic study. Mod Pathol. 1999;12(1):82–7.Google Scholar

Filippi, L, Serafini, L, Dani, C, Bertini, G, Pezzati, M, Tronchin, M, et al. Congenital syphilis: unique clinical presentation in three preterm newborns. J Perinat Med. 2004;32(1):90–4.Google Scholar

Hardy, JB, Hardy, PH, Oppenheimer, EH, Ryan, SJ, Jr., Sheff, RN. Failure of penicillin in a newborn with congenital syphilis. JAMA. 1970;212(8):1345–9.Google Scholar

Leonard, JM. Central nervous system tuberculosis. Microbiol Spectr. 2017;5(2).Google Scholar

Peng, W, Yang, J, Liu, E. Analysis of 170 cases of congenital TB reported in the literature between 1946 and 2009. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2011;46(12):1215–24.Google Scholar

Kang, GH, Chi, JG. Congenital tuberculosis–report of an autopsy case. J Korean Med Sci. 1990;5(1):59–64.Google Scholar

Harris, EA, McCullough, GC, Stone, JJ, Brock, WM. Congenital tuberculosis; a review of the disease with report of a case. J Pediatr. 1948;32(3):311–6.Google Scholar

Hughesdon, MR. Congenital tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child. 1946;21(107):121–38.Google Scholar

Gupta, K, Radotra, BD, Suri, D, Sharma, K, Saxena, AK, Singhi, P. Mycotic aneurysm and subarachnoid hemorrhage following tubercular meningitis in an infant with congenital tuberculosis and cytomegalovirus disease. J Child Neurol. 2012;27(10):1320–5.Google Scholar

Cifuentes, Y, Murcia, MI, Piar, J, Pardo, P. Cerebral microcalcifications in a newborn with congenital tuberculosis. Biomedica. 2016;36(1):22–8.Google Scholar

Li, CK, Chan, YF, Har, CMY. Congenital tuberculosis. Aust Paediatr J. 1989;25:366–7.Google Scholar

Khorsand Zak, H, Mafinezhad, S, Haghbin, A. Congenital tuberculosis: a newborn case report with rare manifestation. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2016;18(10):e23572.Google Scholar

Bianchi-Jassir, F, Seale, AC, Kohli-Lynch, M, Lawn, JE, Baker, CJ, Bartlett, L, et al. Preterm birth associated with group B streptococcus maternal colonization worldwide: systematic review and meta-analyses. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(suppl_2):S133–S42.Google Scholar

Randis, TM, Gelber, SE, Hooven, TA, Abellar, RG, Akabas, LH, Lewis, EL, et al. Group B Streptococcus beta-hemolysin/cytolysin breaches maternal-fetal barriers to cause preterm birth and intrauterine fetal demise in vivo. J Infect Dis. 2014;210(2):265–73.Google Scholar

Tazi, A, Bellais, S, Tardieux, I, Dramsi, S, Trieu-Cuot, P, Poyart, C. Group B Streptococcus surface proteins as major determinants for meningeal tropism. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2012;15(1):44–9.Google Scholar

Wadhwa Desai, R, Smith, MA. Pregnancy-related listeriosis. Birth Defects Res. 2017;109(5):324–35.Google Scholar

Adams Waldorf, KM, McAdams, RM. Influence of infection during pregnancy on fetal development. Reproduction. 2013;146(5):R151–R62.Google Scholar

Ledger, WJ. Perinatal infections and fetal/neonatal brain injury. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2008;20(2):120–4.Google Scholar

Carlier, Y, Truyens, C, Deloron, P, Peyron, F. Congenital parasitic infections: a review. Acta Trop. 2012;121(2):55–70.Google Scholar

Bhopale, GM. Pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2003;26(4):213–22.Google Scholar

Khan, K, Khan, W. Congenital toxoplasmosis: An overview of the neurological and ocular manifestations. Parasitol Int. 2018;67(6):715–21.Google Scholar

Desmonts, G, Couvreur, J. Congenital toxoplasmosis. A prospective study of 378 pregnancies. N Engl J Med. 1974;290(20):1110–6.Google Scholar

Cortina-Borja, M, Tan, HK, Wallon, M, Paul, M, Prusa, A, Buffolano, W, et al. Prenatal treatment for serious neurological sequelae of congenital toxoplasmosis: an observational prospective cohort study. PLoS Med. 2010;7(10):e1000351.Google Scholar

Kochanowsky, JA, Koshy, AA. Toxoplasma gondii. Curr Biol. 2018;28(14):R770–R1.Google Scholar

Blader, IJ, Coleman, BI, Chen, CT, Gubbels, MJ. Lytic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii: 15 years later. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2015;69:463–85.Google Scholar

Mendez, OA, Koshy, AA. Toxoplasma gondii: Entry, association, and physiological influence on the central nervous system. PLoS Pathog. 2017;13(7):e1006351.Google Scholar

Konradt, C, Ueno, N, Christian, DA, Delong, JH, Pritchard, GH, Herz, J, et al. Endothelial cells are a replicative niche for entry of Toxoplasma gondii to the central nervous system. Nat Microbiol. 2016;1:16001.Google Scholar

Lachenmaier, SM, Deli, MA, Meissner, M, Liesenfeld, O. Intracellular transport of Toxoplasma gondii through the blood-brain barrier. J Neuroimmunol. 2011;232(1–2):119–30.Google Scholar

Carruthers, VB, Suzuki, Y. Effects of Toxoplasma gondii infection on the brain. Schizophr Bull. 2007;33(3):745–51.Google Scholar

Sugi, T, Tu, V, Ma, Y, Tomita, T, Weiss, LM. Toxoplasma gondii requires glycogen phosphorylase for balancing amylopectin storage and for efficient production of brain cysts. MBio. 2017;8(4).Google Scholar

Frenkel, JK. Pathology and pathogenesis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Bull N Y Acad Med. 1974;50(2):182–91.Google Scholar

Fenzi, F, Simonati, A, Nardelli, E, Novelli, P, Galiazzo Rizzuto, S, Rizzuto, N. Congenital toxoplasmosis: histological and ultrastructural study. Ital J Neurol Sci. 1982;3(1):49–57.Google Scholar

Ferguson, DJ, Bowker, C, Jeffery, KJ, Chamberlain, P, Squier, W. Congenital toxoplasmosis: continued parasite proliferation in the fetal brain despite maternal immunological control in other tissues. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(2):204–8.Google Scholar

Laure-Kamionowska, M, Dambska, M. Damage of maturing brain in the course of toxoplasmic encephalitis. Neuropatol Pol. 1992;30(3–4):307–14.Google Scholar

Levin, PM, Moore, H. Fetal toxoplasmic encephalitis—A type of congenital cerebral disease. J Pediatr. 1942;21(5):673–9.Google Scholar

Lowichik, A, Siegel, JD. Parasitic infections of the central nervous system in children. Part I: Congenital infections and meningoencephalitis. J Child Neurol. 1995;10(1):4–17.Google Scholar

Malinger, G, Werner, H, Rodriguez Leonel, JC, Rebolledo, M, Duque, M, Mizyrycki, S, et al. Prenatal brain imaging in congenital toxoplasmosis. Prenat Diagn. 2011;31(9):881–6.Google Scholar

Olariu, TR, Remington, JS, McLeod, R, Alam, A, Montoya, JG. Severe congenital toxoplasmosis in the United States: clinical and serologic findings in untreated infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(12):1056–61.Google Scholar

Roberts, F, Mets, MB, Ferguson, DJ, O’Grady, R, O’Grady, C, Thulliez, P, et al. Histopathological features of ocular toxoplasmosis in the fetus and infant. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119(1):51–8.Google Scholar

de Leon, GA. Observations on cerebral and cerebellar microgyria. Acta Neuropathol. 1972;20(4):278–87.Google Scholar

Torrico, F, Alonso-Vega, C, Suarez, E, Rodriguez, P, Torrico, MC, Dramaix, M, et al. Maternal Trypanosoma cruzi infection, pregnancy outcome, morbidity, and mortality of congenitally infected and non-infected newborns in Bolivia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004;70(2):201–9.Google Scholar

Bittencourt, AL. Congenital Chagas disease. Am J Dis Child. 1976;130(1):97–103.Google Scholar