The depression, obstructive sleep apnea and cognitive impairment (DOC) screen assesses three post-stroke comorbidities, but additional information may be gained from the time to complete the screen. Cognitive screening completion time is rarely used as an outcome measure.

To assess DOC screen completion time as a predictor of cognitive impairment in stroke/transient ischemic attack clinics.

Consecutive English-speaking stroke prevention clinic patients consented to undergo screening and neuropsychological testing (n = 437). DOC screen scores and times were compared to scores on the NINDS-CSC battery using multiple linear regression (controlling for age, sex, education and stroke severity) and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis.

Completion time for the DOC screen was 3.8 ± 1.3 minutes. After accounting for covariates, the completion time was a significant predictor of the speed of processing (p = 0.002, 95% CI: −0.016 to −0.004), verbal fluency (p < 0.001, CI: −0.012 to −0.006) and executive function (p = 0.004, CI: −0.006 to −0.001), but not memory. Completion time above 5.5 minutes was associated with a high likelihood of impairment on executive and speed of processing tasks (likelihood ratios 3.9–5.2).

DOC screen completion time is easy to collect in routine care. People needing over 5.5 minutes to be screened likely have deficits in executive functioning and speed of processing – areas commonly impaired, but challenging to screen for, after stroke. DOC screen time provides a simple, feasible approach to assess these under-identified cognitive impairments.

Among participants with Alzheimer's disease (AD) we estimated the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) in apathy symptom severity on three scales.

Retrospective anchor- and distribution-based analyses of change in apathy symptom scores.

Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial (ADMET) and ADMET 2 randomized controlled trials conducted at three and ten clinics specialized in dementia care in United States and Canada, respectively.

Two hundred and sixty participants (60 ADMET, 200 ADMET 2) with clinically significant apathy in Alzheimer’s disease.

The Clinical Global Impression of Change in Apathy scale was used as the anchor measure and the MCID on the Neuropsychiatric Inventory – Apathy (NPI-A), Dementia Apathy Interview and Rating (DAIR), and Apathy Evaluation Scale-Informant (AES-I) were estimated with linear mixed models across all study visits. The estimated thresholds were evaluated with performance metrics.

Among the MCID was a decrease of four points (95% CI: −4.0 to −4.8) on the NPI-A, 0.56 points (95% CI: −0.47 to −0.65) on the DAIR, and three points on the AES-I (95% CI: −0.9 to −5.4). Distribution-based analyses were largely consistent with the anchor-based analyses. The MCID across the three measures showed ∼60% accuracy. Sensitivity analyses found that MMSE scores and apathy severity at baseline influenced the estimated MCID.

MCIDs for apathy on three scales will help evaluate treatment efficacy at the individual level. However, the modest correspondence between MCID and clinical impression of change suggests the need to consider other scales.

Older adults are at greater risk for developing severe illness from SARS-COV2 infection and may be more vulnerable to negative mental health outcomes as a result of public health guidelines that increase social isolation. We assessed mental health outcomes in older adults with normal cognition (NC), past history of major depressive disorder (i.e., remitted; rMDD), or mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to determine the prevalence of depression, anxiety, general stress, and post-traumatic stress during the COVID-19 pandemic and the impact of diagnosis and sex.

The sample included 108 older adults (37 males, mean age=72.1 years): 71 older adults with normal cognition (NC) based on normal neuropsychological test performance and no psychiatric history, 21 rMDD participants based on DSM5 criteria, and 16 MCI participants based on NIA-AA criteria. Participants completed self-report measures of depression [Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)], anxiety [Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS)], general stress [Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)] and post-traumatic stress [Impact of Events Scale Revised (IES-R)] through video- or teleconferencing. Prevalence rates of clinically significant psychiatric symptoms were expressed as the percentage of participants with total scores that exceed the normal cut-offs. Separate MANOVAs were used to examine the effects of diagnosis and sex. Non-normally distributed data (PHQ-9 and PROMIS total scores) were rank-transformed.

Approximately 1/3rd of participants endorsed clinically significant symptoms based on scores exceeding the cut-off for normal: 33.7% on PHQ-9, 31.3% on PROMIS-Anxiety, 35.5% on PSS, 38.3% on IES-R. rMDD participants scored higher on all measures compared to NC participants (p’s < .005) while MCI participants scored higher on the PSS compared to NC (p=.035). Women scored higher on all measures compared to men.

These rates of approximately 1/3rd reporting clinically significant symptoms of depression, anxiety, general stress, and post-traumatic stress are higher than those described in population surveys of older adults but are comparable to prevalence rates of psychiatric symptoms in the general adult population. The effects of diagnosis and sex indicate that older adults with previous depression or current MCI, as well as women overall, are particularly vulnerable to developing clinically significant psychiatric

Previous findings suggest that time setting errors (TSEs) in the Clock Drawing Test (CDT) may be related mainly to impairments in semantic and executive function. Recent attempts to dissociate the classic stimulus-bound error (setting the time to “10 to 11” instead of “10 past 11”) from other TSEs, did not support hypotheses regarding this error being primarily executive in nature or different from other time setting errors in terms of neurocognitive correlates. This study aimed to further investigate the cognitive correlates of stimulus-bound errors and other TSEs, in order to trace possible underlying cognitive deficits.

We examined cognitive test performance of participants with preliminary diagnoses associated with mild cognitive impairment. Among 490 participants, we identified clocks with stimulus-bound errors (n = 78), other TSEs (n = 41), other errors not related to time settings (n = 176), or errorless clocks (n = 195).

No differences were found on any dependent measure between the stimulus-bound and the other TSErs groups. Group comparisons suggested TSEs in general, to be associated with lower performance on various cognitive measures, especially on semantic and working memory measures. Regression analysis further highlighted semantic and verbal working memory difficulties as being the most prominent deficits associated with these errors.

TSEs in the CDT may indicate underlying deficits in semantic function and working memory. In addition, results support previous findings related to the diagnostic value of TSEs in detecting cognitive impairment.

This paper used data from the Apathy in Dementia Methylphenidate Trial 2 (NCT02346201) to conduct a planned cost consequence analysis to investigate whether treatment of apathy with methylphenidate is economically attractive.

A total of 167 patients with clinically significant apathy randomized to either methylphenidate or placebo were included. The Resource Utilization in Dementia Lite instrument assessed resource utilization for the past 30 days and the EuroQol five dimension five level questionnaire assessed health utility at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. Resources were converted to costs using standard sources and reported in 2021 USD. A repeated measures analysis of variance compared change in costs and utility over time between the treatment and placebo groups. A binary logistic regression was used to assess cost predictors.

Costs were not significantly different between groups whether the cost of methylphenidate was excluded (F(2,330) = 0.626, ηp2 = 0.004, p = 0.535) or included (F(2,330) = 0.629, ηp2 = 0.004, p = 0.534). Utility improved with methylphenidate treatment as there was a group by time interaction (F(2,330) = 7.525, ηp2 = 0.044, p < 0.001).

Results from this study indicated that there was no evidence for a difference in resource utilization costs between methylphenidate and placebo treatment. However, utility improved significantly over the 6-month follow-up period. These results can aid in decision-making to improve quality of life in patients with Alzheimer’s disease while considering the burden on the healthcare system.

To compare the prevalence of select cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs) in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) versus lifetime history of major depression disorder (MDD) and a normal comparison group using baseline data from the Prevention of Alzheimer’s Dementia with Cognitive Remediation plus Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (PACt-MD) study.

Baseline data from a multi-centered intervention study of older adults with MCI, history of MDD, or combined MCI and history of MDD (PACt-MD) were analyzed.

Community-based multi-centered study based in Toronto across 5 academic sites.

Older adults with MCI, history of MDD, or combined MCI and history of MDD and healthy controls.

We examined the baseline distribution of smoking, hypertension and diabetes in three groups of participants aged 60+ years in the PACt-MD cohort study: MCI (n = 278), MDD (n = 95), and healthy older controls (n = 81). Generalized linear models were fitted to study the effect of CVRFs on MCI and MDD as well as neuropsychological composite scores.

A higher odds of hypertension among the MCI cohort compared to healthy controls (p < .05) was noted in unadjusted analysis. Statistical significance level was lost on adjusting for age, sex and education (p > .05). A history of hypertension was associated with lower performance in composite executive function (p < .05) and overall composite neuropsychological test score (p < .05) among a pooled cohort with MCI or MDD.

This study reinforces the importance of treating modifiable CVRFs, specifically hypertension, as a means of mitigating cognitive decline in patients with at-risk cognitive conditions.

The present study describes the energy content of primary-school children’s lunchboxes and the proportion of lunchbox foods considered discretionary. Subgroup analyses by sex, socio-economic status, age and weight status were undertaken.

A cross-sectional study was conducted. Mean kilojoule content, number of items and categorisation of foods and drinks in lunchboxes as ‘everyday’ (healthy) or discretionary (sometimes) foods were assessed via a valid and reliable lunchbox observational audit.

Twelve Catholic primary schools (Kindergarten–Grade 6) located in the Hunter region of New South Wales, Australia.

Kindergarten to Grade 6 primary-school students.

In total, 2143 children (57 %) had parental consent to have their lunchboxes observed. School lunchboxes contained a mean of 2748 kJ, of which 61·2 % of energy was from foods consistent with the Australian Dietary Guidelines and 38·8 % of energy was discretionary foods. The proportion of lunchboxes containing only healthy foods was 12 %. Children in Kindergarten–Grade 2 packed more servings of ‘everyday’ foods (3·32 v. 2·98, P < 0·01) compared with children in Grades 3–6. Children in Grades 3–6 had a higher percentage of energy from discretionary foods (39·1 v. 33·8 %, P < 0·01) compared with children in Kindergarten–Grade 2 and children from the most socio-economically disadvantaged areas had significantly higher total kilojoules in the school lunchbox compared with the least disadvantaged students (2842 v. 2544 kJ, P = 0·03).

Foods packed within school lunchboxes may contribute to energy imbalance. The development of school policies and population-based strategies to support parents overcome barriers to packing healthy lunchboxes are warranted.

The stress associated with care of patients with dementia has led to high nursing staff turnover. This study aims to explore patient factors that are related to nursing burden.

The present study examined nursing care burden related to 55 institutionalized dementia patients using the Modified Nursing Care Assessment Scale (M-NCAS). Cognition was assessed with the Severe Impairment Battery (SIB), activities of daily living (ADLs) were measured with the Alzheimer's Disease Functional Assessment of Change Scale (ADFACS), aggression was measured with the Aggressive Behavior Scale (ABS), and the Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) was used to assess medical comorbidity. Finally, the Dementia Cognitive Fluctuation Scale (DCFS) was used to assess the presence and severity of cognitive fluctuations (CFs). Linear regression models were used to assess their relationships with nursing care burden.

The mean age of the patients was 90.41 years (SD=2.84) and 89.10% were males. ADFACS total score (B = 0.36, β = 0.42, p = 0.002) and ABS score (B = 2.933, β = 0.37, p = 0.002) significantly predicted the M-NCAS Attitude score. ABS score was the only significant predictor of M-NCAS Strain score (B = 2.57, β = 0.35, p = 0.009).

In the long-term care setting, aggressive behavior plays an important role in both subjective and objective nursing burden, while impaired ADLs increase the objective burden for nursing staff.

New onset of mood and behavioral changes in middle-aged patients are frequently the first manifestations of an unrecognized neurocognitive disorder. Impairment of social cognition, the cognitive ability to process social information coming from others, such as emotions, to attribute mental states to others, and to respond appropriately to them, is often at the origin of behavioral manifestations in neurodegenerative disorders.

This paper reviews the current literature on social cognition impairment in neurocognitive disorders, particularly in prodromal stages of behavioral-variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), idiopathic Parkinson's disease (IPD), and Lewy body dementia (LBD). The concepts of social cognition will be reviewed, including its impairment and neural basis, its clinical assessment, and the different therapeutic interventions available clinically.

Socially inappropriate behaviors, such as loss of empathy, inappropriateness of affect, and disinhibition are frequently reported in prodromal bvFTD and in prodromal AD. Lack of self-control, reduced perception of social cues, such as recognition of facial emotions and sarcastic speech, and impaired Theory of Mind all contribute to the neuropsychiatric symptoms and are secondary to neurodegeneration in specific brain regions. In contrasts to bvFTD and AD, deficits in social cognition in IPD occur later in the course of the disease and are often multifactorial in origin.

Through various manifestations, social inappropriateness is frequently the first clinical sign of a neurodegenerative process, especially in AD and bvFTD, years before noticeable impairment on classical neuropsychological assessment and brain atrophy on imaging.

Apathy, characterized by diminished motivation, is a highly prevalent neuropsychiatric symptom in dementia. However, there is a substantial knowledge gap with regard to prevalence rates, neurobiological underpinnings, and effective treatments for apathy in pre-dementia states, including mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and mild behavioral impairment (MBI).

We conducted a comprehensive literature search using MEDLINE, Embase, and PsycINFO databases to identify available research on apathy in prodromal dementia.

Apathy has consistently been detected in individuals with MCI with varying prevalence rates, and only recently has literature discussed the prevalence of apathy in MBI. Few pharmacological treatments have been utilized for apathy, with galantamine and risperidone showing mild reductions in apathetic behaviors. Non-pharmacological interventions in prodromal dementia are beginning to be explored and show promise, but few studies have replicated those results.

More comprehensive guidelines for diagnosing apathy and further research investigating neurobiological mechanisms of apathy in MCI and MBI are required in order to effectively treat apathetic patients in prodromal dementia.

Driving in persons with dementia poses risks that must be counterbalanced with the importance of the care for autonomy and mobility. Physicians often find substantial challenges in the assessment and reporting of driving safety for persons with dementia. This paper describes a driving in dementia decision tool (DD-DT) developed to aid physicians in deciding when to report older drivers with either mild dementia or mild cognitive impairment to local transportation administrators.

A multi-faceted, computerized decision support tool was developed, using a systematic literature and guideline review, expert opinion from an earlier Delphi study, as well as qualitative interviews and focus groups with physicians, caregivers of former drivers with dementia, and transportation administrators. The tool integrates inputs from the physician-user about the patient's clinical and driving history as well as cognitive findings, and it produces a recommendation for reporting to transportation administrators. This recommendation is translated into a customized reporting form for the transportation authority, if applicable, and additional resources are provided for the patient and caregiver.

An innovative approach was needed to develop the DD-DT. The literature and guideline review confirmed the algorithm derived from the earlier Delphi study, and barriers identified in the qualitative research were incorporated into the design of the tool.

Studies have shown the clock-drawing test (CDT) to be a useful screening test that differentiates between normal, elderly populations, and those diagnosed with dementia. However, the results of studies which have looked at the utility of the CDT to help differentiate Alzheimer's disease (AD) from other dementias have been conflicting. The purpose of this study was to explore the utility of the CDT in discriminating between patients with AD and other types of dementia.

A review was conducted using MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Embase. Search terms included clock drawing or CLOX and dementia or Parkinson's Disease or AD or dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) or vascular dementia (VaD).

Twenty studies were included. In most of the studies, no significant differences were found in quantitative CDT scores between AD and VaD, DLB, and Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) patients. However, frontotemporal dementia (FTD) patients consistently scored higher on the CDT than AD patients. Qualitative analyses of errors differentiated AD from other types of dementia.

Overall, the CDT score may be useful in distinguishing between AD and FTD patients, but shows limited value in differentiating between AD and VaD, DLB, and PDD. Qualitative analysis of the type of CDT errors may be a useful adjunct in the differential diagnosis of the types of dementias.

The behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) are common, serious problems that impair the quality of life for both patient and caregiver. In order to provide recommendations based upon the best available evidence, a qualitative literature review was performed.

A search of the English language medical literature published between 1966 and 2000 was performed. The quality of the studies was assessed by considering the subjects, trial design, analysis and results. Final recommendations were based upon the quality of available evidence.

The management of BPSD begins with a thorough assessment to search for underlying causes of behaviour change. Concomitant medical illness should be treated and sensory impairment ameliorated. Nonpharmacological approaches should be instituted prior to medication use. These interventions include music, light, changes in level of stimulation and specific behavioral techniques. Antipsychotics are the best studied pharmacological intervention for agitation and aggression and have demonstrated modest but consistent efficacy. Antidepressants such as trazodone and selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, as well as anticonvulsants such as carbamazepine and valproic acid have also demonstrated efficacy. Benzodiazepines can be used for short-term treatment as p.r.n. agents when necessary. Pharmacotherapy must be monitored closely for both effectiveness and side effects, with consideration of medication withdrawal when appropriate.

The management of BPSD can significantly improve the quality of life for the patient and caregiver. Their assessment and management are essential components of the treatment of dementia.

Little is known about the effect of methylphenidate (MPH) on attention in Alzheimer's disease (AD). MPH has shown to improve apathy in AD, and both apathy and attention have been related to dopaminergic function. The goal was to investigate MPH effects on attention in AD and assess the relationship between attention and apathy responses.

MPH (10 mg PO twice daily) or placebo was administered for six weeks in a randomized, double-blind trial in mild-to-moderate AD outpatients with apathy (Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI) Apathy ≥ 4). Attention was measured with the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Digit Span (DS) subtest (DS forward, selective attention) and apathy with the Apathy Evaluation Scale (AES). A mixed effects linear regression estimated the difference in change from baseline between treatment groups, defined as δ (MPH (DS week 6–DS baseline)) – (placebo (DS week 6–DS baseline)).

In 60 patients (37 females, age = 76 ± 8, Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) = 20 ± 5, NPI Apathy = 7 ± 2), the change in DS forward (δ = 0.87 (95% CI: 0.06–1.68), p = 0.03) and DS total (δ = 1.01 (95% CI: 0.09–1.93), p = 0.03) favored MPH over placebo. Of 57 completers, 17 patients had improved apathy (≥3.3 points on the AES from baseline to end point) and 40 did not. There were no significant associations between AES and NPI Apathy with DS change scores in the MPH, placebo, AES responder, or non-responder groups. DS scores did not predict apathy response to MPH treatment.

These results suggest MPH can improve attention and apathy in AD; however, the effects appear independent in this population.